Photopolymerization-Based Additive Manufacturing and Characterization of Technical Ceramics for Spacecraft Propulsion and Thermal Control Systems
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Additive manufacturing capability has developed rapidly, enabling a previously unachievable level of complexity and performance. Ceramic additive manufacturing in particular has only comparatively recently seen mainstream uptake in commercial applications beyond pure research. This work examines ceramic additive manufacturing (AM) via digital light processing (DLP), a high resolution printing process which produces high density final parts. The purpose is multifold - both to develop novel ceramic feedstocks for manufacturing as well developing new technologies enabled by AM. First, the development of a silicon nitride, a high strength, non-oxide technical ceramic, for additive manufacturing is explored. The ceramic feedstock was developed from a 92:5:3 blend of SI3N4:Al2O3:Y2O3 which enables pressureless liquid-state sintering. Moderate part strength was observed, averaging ≈ 329 MPa, but demonstrated excellent resilience with respect to high heat flux, sustaining a continuous 200 W/cm2 flux from an oxyacetylene torch with minimal degradation and a 250 W/cm2 peak flux. Importantly, the cure kinetics were examined in the feedstock as a substantive drop in penetration depth was observed, with a 30-35% decrease in previously used feedstock versus virgin. The various factors which impact penetration depth and cure kinetics are examined, such as oxidation effects, partial resin curing, and photoinitiator degradation. By exclusion, decreased curing appears to be dominated by a decrease in photoactivity as would be evidenced by photoinitiator degradation.Further work explores ceramic AM aerospace applications, with the development of a novel constant conductance heat pipe (CCHP) fabricated from Al2O3, the first reported use of a ceramic AM CCHP. While heat pipes are conventionally made from metal, the use of ceramic has a few key advantages. Material compatibility is far greater with ceramics compared to metals owing to inherently lower reactivity. Additionally, ceramics are generally not electrically conductive, are radio frequency transparent, and are lower mass than common metal envelope materials, aluminum exclusive. This work examines the applicability of ceramic CCHPs for low (< 400 K) and intermediate (400 - 700 K) temperature regimes using ethanol and Dowtherm A as working fluids for each regime respectively. Optimal charge volumes are explored as well as the impact of adverse gravity operation. Dowtherm A performed well over its performance envelope, with peak operation at a 550 μL charge volume at 18.9 W with an effective thermal conductivity of 324 W/m·K. The limitations of these Al2O3 heat pipes are apparent when considered for spacecraft use, as the inherent thermal resistance of the envelope material inherently increases system mass while decreasing overall performance. By switching the envelope material to an alternative ceramic, aluminum nitride, it is possible to produce a heat pipe envelope which has thermal conductivity similar to conventional aluminum alloys, but with far greater working fluid compatibility and maximum operating temperature. Based on the experience working with Si3N4 feedstock, an aluminum nitride formulation was developed to enable high conductivity thermal devices. Compatibility is determined with halide (AlBr3, AlCl3, FeCl3, and I2) and organic (Dowtherm A) intermediate temperature working fluids via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Additionally, glazes were trialed to ensure hermeticity of the envelope material. There is too often a discontinuity between basic materials development and implementation. This work bridges this gap, first providing insight into Si3N4 ceramic feedstock development and characterization. Subsequently, Al2O3 heat pipes intended for spacecraft nuclear electric propulsion systems are developed and tested, lending valuable insight into their operation and development challenges. Leveraging the lessons learned in Si3N4 development and Al2O3 heat pipe testing, a high performance AlN feedstock is developed and tested for compatibility with exotic heat pipe working fluids, with the goal to improve system performance and efficiency.