FORMULATION ENGINEERING OF BLADE COATED CESIUM LEAD BROMIDE PEROVSKITE THIN FILMS
A thorough understanding of crystallization pathways is necessary to elucidate processing-structure-property relationships in any material system. In this work, we present a study of the crystallization of the all-inorganic cesium lead bromide (CsPbBr3) perovskite; this study encompasses determining the overall structural and morphological evolution of thin films by analyzing the effect of precursor solution chemistry and processing conditions on the crystal nucleation and growth of the perovskite from solution.The all-inorganic CsPbBr3 perovskite has recently attracted tremendous interest for applications in solar cells owing to its excellent stability under heat and moisture. Limited by the extremely low solubility of CsBr in most common organic solvents, it remains a difficult task to prepare high quality CsPbBr3 thin films by the commonly employed spin-coating technique. In this work, we devised a one-step, manual blade coating technique to fabricate CsPbBr3 thin films and modified the conventional annealing step to evaporate the solvent by annealing our thin films in a vacuum furnace to increase crystal nucleation rates. By understanding two important processing-structure relationships i.e., precursor solution chemistry and annealing profiles, we were able to prepare CsPbBr3 thin films with good coverage and excellent crystal texture, exhibiting mosaic spreads between 3-5º using a precursor solution of CsBr and PbBr2 in equimolar ratios with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as the solvent. Preparing films with different annealing profiles enabled us to alter nucleation densities and growth rates, leading to varying grain sizes. We saw that crystal growth proceeded according to the Burton-Frank-Cabrera (BCF) theory, whereby a larger degree of initial supersaturation (annealing at 75 ºC for 30 min) induced the growth of smooth, compact grains (~2.5µm grain diameter) and narrow mosaic spreads (~3-4º) as opposed to larger spherulites/polycrystals (~10µm in diameter) and poor crystal texture that were observed when supersaturation levels were lower (annealing on a temperature ramp from 25 ºC to 75 ºC). The effect of using a mixture of solvents was also studied in detail. Adding small amounts of dimethyl formamide (DMF) into the crystallization solution was shown to significantly alter film morphologies, leading to extremely rough and inconsistently shaped domains with poor coverage, though crystal texture was retained. When tetrahydrothiophene-1-oxide (THTO) was used as an additive, we saw not only the formation of multiple crystalline non-perovskite phases and irreproducible morphologies, but also lost their crystallographic texture. Further studies of the precursor solution chemistry via UV-Visible Absorption Spectroscopy revealed that bromoplumbate complexation was unchanged irrespective of solvent composition. This led us to identify certain physical characteristics of the solvents that we think could most likely influence crystal texture and morphology. In the case of adding DMF to the crystallization solution, we hypothesize that the poor solubility of CsBr and PbBr2 in DMF as opposed to DMSO leads to different levels of supersaturation, causing variations in film morphologies, although the good wetting of the DMSO + DMF blend on the substrate facilitated higher nucleation rates and a retention of the crystal texture consequently. The presence of THTO however, causes the precursor ink to poorly wet the substrate (possibly due to the higher viscosity of THTO), leading to poor nucleation rates and a loss of crystal texture. The formation of non-perovskite phases in this case, however, remains an unanswered question and will be the subject of future studies of chemical interactions between the Cs+ ions and solvent molecules. The objective of this work is to control perovskite thin film growth through formulation engineering. Understanding perovskite nucleation and growth mechanisms will enable the engineering of perovskite thin films with even better control of crystal texture and morphology and spearhead the fabrication of highly efficient solar cells.