no's 75th Anniversary Training programs: the key to achieving ILO goals The ILO continues to emphasize the importance of training in helping workers acquire skills to enable them to choose productive employment, and as a way of accomplishing its social goals Allan Salt The International Labor Organization (ILO) social, and cultural development; and the mu-has always considered training an impor- tual relationships between human resources de-tant tool in achieving its goals to improve velopment and other economic, social, and cul- working conditions and promote social justice. tural objectives. Indeed, the ILO Constitution declares vocational Given this mandate, ILO'S research, informa- and technical education a principal way to attain tion, advisory and, particularly, technical coop- these goals. eration activities have been to improve the eco- The 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia renews nomic efficiency and relevance of vocational ILO'S training objectives and puts this mandate training as a necessary condition for promoting in an economic context, proclaiming ILO'S obli- its social aspects. The ILO has been less con- gation to advance world programs that advocate cerned with improving training methodology, achieving full employment and raising standards leaving this task to more specialized organiza- of living; employing workers in occupations in tions. However, it keeps up with developments which they can use the "fullest measure of their in new instructional methods and shares this in- skill and attainments and make their greatest formation with member states and, where appro- contribution to the common well-being"; and priate, helps the states adapt innovative ap- guaranteeing facilities for training and the trans- proaches to their specific circumstances. fer of labor. These objectives have been restated in numerous Conventions and Recommendations adopted over the years, some of which directly Expenditures for technical cooperation address training. Before World War II, the ILO'S primary means of The ILO emphasizes the importance of train- influencing training was to emphasize its impor- ing1 in achieving social goals, such as equal op- tance in achieving the objectives of international portunity for workers in acquiring skills that will standards. These standards covered aspects of allow them to choose productive employment. It training and vocational guidance for numerous recognizes that training must be efficient and groups, including agricultural workers, appren- Allan Salt was director of consistent with national economic and other poli- tices, young workers, maritime workers, fisher-ILO'S Training Department from 1991 to 1994. The cies. For example, Human Resources Develop- men, and the disabled. views expressed in this ment Convention 142 (1975) stipulates that vo- A modest research and publications program article are the author's and cational guidance and training policies and pro- was undertaken, primarily to support conferences are not a statement of the grams "shall take due account of" employment and meetings. Following the war, the ILO steadily views of the U.S. Department of Labor or the needs, opportunities and problems, both regional increased its analytical and advisory involvement Bureau of Labor Statistics. and national; the stage and level of economic, in training, first as part of a contribution to post- 32 Monthly Labor Review September 1994 war reconstruction and later in an effort to speed aimed at strengthening national capacity for economic development in underdeveloped areas policy analysis, improving the efficiency of pub- of the world. The United Nations and other do- lic training systems, and increasing training op- nor programs began expanding in the 1960's to portunities for women and other specific groups. meet the development needs of the growing num- ber of newly independent countries, as did ILO ex- ILO training activities penditures for technical cooperation, which peaked at nearly $170 million in U.S. dollars in 1991. ILO training activities are classified by the re- The following summarizes the growth and re- sponsible organization, rather than by the nature cent decline of the ILO technical cooperation pro- of each activity. Thus, vocational training expen- gram, as measured by expenditures: ditures primarily reflect expenditures by two vocational training units, while training expen- Annual expenditures ditures related to cooperatives, hotels and tour- (thousands of U.S. dollars) ism, or small enterprise development are attrib- 1950-51 $ 341 uted to those units. 1960 3,485 During the first 20 years of technical coop- 1970 29,946 eration, about half of all ILO expenditures for 1980 99,392 1990 152,175 technical cooperation were for vocational train- 1991 169,877 ing, primarily for craft and related trades workers, 3 1992 163,550 Between 1950 and 1972, 43.6 percent of ex- 1993 148,670 pert consultancy services, 49.3 percent of train- ing fellows from developing countries who par- Source: Annual reports of the director-general on the activities of the ILO. ticipated in programs in developed nations, and 59 percent of equipment purchases were for vo- The ILO complemented its growing program cational training projects. 4 As ILO technical co- of technical cooperation with a substantial in- operation expanded to other program areas such crease in its dissemination of research and infor- as management development, workers' educa- mation. For example, studies focused on rural tion, and cooperative development, its share of community development, modular training tech- vocational training projects declined. 5 For ex- niques, training needs assessment, and the infor- ample, vocational training projects accounted for mal sector. More recently, priority has been given 38 percent of ILO technical cooperation and 35 to applied research (and reference materials) percent of international experts assigned to The ILO concept of vocational training Most definitions of vocational training em- member shall gradually extend, adopt and phasize its role in developing job- or occupa- harmonize its vocational training systems to tion-related skills to distinguish it from gen- meet the needs for vocational training eral education—which teaches cognitive throughout life of both young persons and skills. However, these distinctions are becom- adults in all sectors of the economy and ing increasingly blurred. One widely used basic branches of economic activity and at all levels definition describes vocational training as ". . . of skill and responsibility." It further states that the systematic development of the attitudes, members "shall establish and develop open, knowledge and skill pattern required for a job."1 flexible and complementary systems of general, Obviously, this definition could cover nearly technical and vocational education, educational all occupations, from the highly skilled pro- and vocational guidance and vocational train- fessional to the unskilled laborer. The various ing, whether these activities take place within vocational training activities are separated by the system of formal education or outside it." skill levels, the relative shares of general edu- The advantage of the comprehensive ILO cation and the job-specific content, and loca- concept of vocational training is the impor- tion of the training site. The ILO training com- tance it implies for investment in workers' munity normally considers vocational training skills and abilities in implementing numer- to cover job-related skills of occupations up ous international standards and in achieving to the technician level. ILO program objectives. Because of its broad Because of the scope and complexity of vo- definition, the concept of vocational training cational training, the ILO has opted for a broad requires careful use of training terminology definition. The Human Resources Develop- and a clear statement of objectives when con- ment Convention of 1975 states that "each sidering specific training interventions. Monthly Labor Review September 1994 33 ILO 's Training Programs projects in 1978, compared with 12 percent of cantly. At the national level, the effects of these technical cooperation and 15 percent of interna- trends were often amplified by rapid labor force tional exports in 1992. But because training also growth, rising unemployment and underemploy- has been an important component of the expand- ment, increasing employer dissatisfaction with ing areas of technical cooperation, approximately the quality and relevance of public training pro- half of total ILO technical cooperation has con- grams, and growing disillusionment among tinued to account for training programs (includ- workers and prospective workers whose employ- ing vocational training). ment expectations went unmet. Several countries The continuing importance of training is il- also experienced increasing difficulties maintain- lustrated in an assessment of 11 ILO technical ing social programs, including education and cooperation projects that are not classified as training, to meet austerity targets established training projects, although they include a train- under structural adjustment programs. 7 ing component. The assessment indicates that In recent years, it became plain that, in today's between 19 percent and 75 percent—an average more complex, rapidly changing training envi- of about 45 percent—of the projects' budgets ronment, policymakers would more than ever were devoted to training.6 have to concern themselves with training inputs Typical early vocational training projects em- as well as financing, resource allocation, employ- phasized the preparation of training legislation, ers' skill requirements, the impact of training on establishment of national training organizations, labor markets, continuing training, and other such and development of pre-employment training issues. As a result, the ILO increased its empha- centers to prepare young people for work in oc- sis on the policy requirements for establishing cupations such as masonry, carpentry, plumbing- and maintaining successful training systems. This pipefitting, welding, automotive repair, air-con- approach more explicitly recognizes the need for ditioning and refrigeration, and radio and televi- appropriate policies and efficient managerial and sion repair, ILO assistance typically helped with professional implementation of training systems. assessing training needs, buildings, equipment, In addition, a consensus was growing that the instructor training, preparing instructional ma- ILO and other specialized U.N. agencies should terials, and establishing tripartite advisory groups. shift their technical cooperation more to the ac- The ILO also has emphasized improving vo- tivities relevant to policy and program formula- cational training opportunities for women, rural tion and to discussions at the 1993 International nonfarm workers, the disabled, and workers in Labor Conference. 8 sectors such as footwear, textiles, food process- New United Nations Development Program ing, and chemicals. Other types of assistance in- procedures, specifically the Technical Support cluded establishing occupational standards, test- Services at the Program Level, reinforced this ing and certification, developing apprenticeship trend at the operational level. This support ser- programs, and strengthening in-plant training. vice also gave governments more responsibility Most vocational training projects collaborated to execute projects, which has reduced the lLO's with ministries of labor, and sometimes with direct involvement. As a result, projects are be- other ministries, such as those responsible for coming smaller, requiring fewer international industry, agriculture and rural development, for- consultants for shorter assignments. The lLO's estry, education, and social affairs. current training strategy is to work with member While the response of vocational training to states to strengthen the capacity of governments labor market demand was not ignored, the prin- and social partners to formulate and implement cipal challenge of lLO's early training projects training policies that produce substantial eco- was to ensure the adequate quality and quantity nomic returns and also account for the needs of of technical inputs. The assumption was that ef- the poorest and most vulnerable social groups. fective vocational training systems would result This effort requires more emphasis on consult- and, for a while, this was reasonably true, at least ant services and less on direct involvement in for nations that concentrated on establishing a implementation. basic training infrastructure. The limits of this Worker education is another important area of approach became increasingly evident in the ILO concern. The education program includes 1970's, as investments accumulated and the dif- preparing instructional materials, conducting ficulties of effectively operating large training seminars, providing fellowships, and implement- systems, especially public institutional based ing training components for technical coopera- systems, became clearer. tion projects. These activities are geared to in- Training in many countries deteriorated seri- creasing workers' understanding of international ously in the 1980's as world economic growth labor standards and enhancing their ability to slowed, technological change accelerated, and participate in forming, planning, and adminis- international trading patterns changed signifi- tering trade union training; promoting and de- 34 Monthly Labor Review September 1994 veloping activities of rural workers' organiza- developed modular instructional materials on tions; participating in the assessment and formu- more than 50 subjects in 35 languages for use by lation of national economic policies; improving trainers and for self-study. More than 100,000 occupational health and safety, and environmental individuals participated in the project. A project protection measures; and strengthening the role of has been launched in Africa and Asia to promote women in trade unions. In recent years, greater cost-effective cooperative training systems cov- emphasis has been placed on augmenting union ering all skill levels, especially those in which capacity to plan and manage training programs. responsibilities for cooperative training are be- Management development is a third important ing transferred from government to cooperatives. part of ILO's training program. The ILO has long been concerned with the role of improved man- Vocational rehabilitation. Training is an essen- agement in enhancing productivity and provid- tial component of ILO vocational rehabilitation ing good working conditions. As early as the activities designed to help disabled persons ac- 1920's, when management techniques were be- quire skills and jobs, and is a principal means of coming more "scientific," the ILO studied the achieving the objectives of the 1983 Vocational problems emerging for new, more "rational" Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Per- management practices and focused the attention sons) Convention. Training is provided for spe- of its members on these practices. Following cialists and others who, while not primarily work- World War II and increased recognition of the ing in the training field', have opportunities to importance of strong management practices in assist the disabled. This program has focused enhancing productivity in European reconstruc- recently on the capacity of communities to par- tion, ILO concern with management development ticipate in the vocational training of disabled expanded and spread to other regions. persons and, following this participation, to sup- As concern for economic development of port their work. The goal is to provide disabled newly independent countries grew and increased persons with skills and support systems to help financial resources became available through them find work in mainstream enterprises or to programs of the United Nations and other such become self-employed. agencies, emphasis on training—combined with other activities—as a means of enhancing man- Other training programs. Since 1965, the ILO's agement development also expanded. ILO man- International Training Center, an autonomous agement training activities emphasized the di- agency, has provided training courses in Turin, agnosis of management problems, productivity Italy, and in member states. The emphasis is on improvement, consultancy skills, supervisory training technology, management skills, trade development, construction management, busi- union skills, and industrial training, but the ness management skills for women, marketing center's activities include all areas of ILO work and credit schemes, and establishment of appro- and are coordinated closely with ILO programs. priate environments for setting policy environments. The changing training environment Job creation. Many countries do not create enough jobs to employ the many jobseekers; The challenge. The environment in which train- policymakers are placing increasing importance ing choices must be made is changing rapidly on creating micro, small, and medium-sized en- for both industrialized and developing countries. terprises and strengthening those enterprises Due to rapid technological advances, industrial- already in operation. Two examples of ILO sup- ized countries are experiencing rapid and, in port for these efforts are its regional training pro- some instances, profound changes in their indus- grams to help entrepreneurs improve their busi- trial structures. These changes are based in large nesses (Improve Your Business) and to assist in the part on advanced communications and informa- formation of new businesses (Start Your Business). tion technology, dramatic shifts in international trade, shorter product life cycles, consumer de- Cooperative training. The ILO's Cooperative mand for greater product choice, and significant Training Program also has emphasized establish- international financial information and techno- ing and improving training institutions, organiz- logical flows that aid foreign direct investment. ing seminars to instruct trainers, and developing To respond to these changes, many businesses training materials. Training cooperative manag- are introducing more flexible labor-saving tech- ers has been an important aspect of the ILO co- nologies that can be adapted quickly to chang- operative program, ing product demand. Businesses also are mak- The long-running, recently completed Mate- ing substantial changes in how work is organized 9 rials and Techniques in Cooperative Management and personnel is managed. Training project strengthened cooperative orga- For example, many enterprises are reducing nizations by training their managers. The project middle management, emphasizing teamwork, Monthly Labor Review September 1994 35 iw's Training Programs giving more discretion and authority to front-line market forces, resulting in high training costs and workers, subcontracting, and relying more on a failure to respond adequately to changing de- contingency work forces (temporary and part- mands for skills. In response, some countries time workers). In innovative firms, a new style have pursued strategies to privatize the bulk of of leadership is emerging that is adapted to man- what once were public training systems, believ- aging employees who are valued for their cre- ing that private institutions are more flexible than ativity and initiative, Successful, competitive public training bureaucracies. Proprietary train- enterprises are becoming "learning organiza- ing enterprises can play an important role, par- tions."10 Obviously, flexible organizations re- ticularly in providing commercial skills which quire workers to continue to learn new skills and, require less investment in expensive equipment if necessary, change their jobs. Updating skills that may quickly become outdated. is increasingly important in industrialized coun- However, privatization is not a panacea and tries with an aging work force, which means that market imperfections may result in less than op- employers hire fewer young workers with up- timum levels of training.n For example, there is to-date skills and instead place more emphasis a limit to the willingness of firms and individu- on retraining experienced and older workers.11 als to pay for training. Firms may fear losing Developing countries, without the resources employees who have received training, and be available to the industrialized and newly indus- unwilling to invest in training or be unable to trializing countries, face many of the same prob- finance it. Many private firms, particularly lems—rapid technological change, depressed smaller ones, lack effective training skills. As a economic markets, and heightened international result, there is considerable interest in the use of competition. In addition, developing nations face payroll taxes to support training and induce firms several other major problems, such as rapidly to train their staffs. This often creates a new role growing populations that require large numbers for the state to regulate and promote expanding of new workers to be trained each year, resulting private training markets. In such a context, sev- in a very young and relatively inexperienced la- eral governments have strengthened their role in bor force. ensuring that standards are met in private train- ing and to prevent abuses. The response. In responding to these chal- Countries that have most successfully adapted lenges, many training institutions in both rich and to international economic changes have opened poor countries have reviewed their objectives and their economies to international trade; invested modes of operation and sought to diversify their heavily in the development of human resources, source of training funds. A number of training with particular attention to education and train- organizations emphasize the delegation of deci- ing; and maintained market-oriented macroeco- sions to local and municipal levels to improve nomic frameworks, all of which have enhanced training efficiency and the match between local their international competitiveness. training supply and demand. Some organizations Significandy, many rapidly industrializing na- also give employers a greater voice in decision- tions have designed training programs as part of making regarding training policies and programs. overall development strategies. The World Bank's Some countries have developed sector-specific 1991 World Development Report documented the training institutions, supported by public or pri- key role of investment in human resources in vate sector employers. In addition, many have successful development strategies. 13 Hong Kong, adopted measures to enhance firm-based train- Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South ing to reduce government expenditures and en- Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand have successfully sure a better fit between the demand for and sup- pursued this comprehensive strategy. ply of skills. Vocational training institutions However, several other countries have been worldwide have traditionally provided free train- less wise and have attempted to try to solve ma- ing, but a more diversified pattern of financing jor economic or social problems solely with train- is emerging, which includes charging trainers for ing. For example, some countries have tried to a part of their training cost and selling training solve problems of large-scale regional redun- and other services to enterprises. dancy with retraining programs virtually alone. These various reform measures reflect a reas- For the most part, such efforts have been unsuc- sessment of the traditional role of government cessful. If such training had been designed as a as the major provider of vocational training. component of a comprehensive program to cre- While the traditional role produced reasonably ate new employment opportunities or fill vacant good results in relatively stable labor markets, it positions, and had been targeted at workers who has proven less satisfactory in today's more dy- would benefit from retraining, then such pro- namic economic circumstances. Public training grams might have contributed. In any event, the systems often are sheltered from competitive lesson is clear: training programs, whatever their 36 Monthly Labor Review September 1994 goals, not only need to be well-designed techni- programs under which workers could acquire cally, but must be linked to compatible educa- solid vocational skills. tional, labor market, and economic activities to Employers in these countries have often paid ensure that they achieve their purpose. most of the cost of acquiring specific skills and, to a much lesser extent, general skills. As a re- sult of growing concern with the relevance of The future: continuity and change public training programs, employers are more The training environment in which ILO member likely to advise and guide public education and states will develop and modify their training pro- training systems. Those employers who do not grams in the years ahead is likely to continue to understand the importance of investing in the change rapidly. Increasing world economic in- skills of their workers will be at a competitive tegration can be expected, as trade continues to disadvantage. be liberalized, communications and transport Governments need to guarantee adequate fund- technologies continue to advance, markets be- ing (with public expenditures and by maintain- come more sophisticated in terms of diversity of ing effective labor market incentives) to sustain products and the rapid change, incomes rise, and desired levels of training. In addition, they need large international financial transfers become to follow policies that reduce or compensate for easier. These factors will combine to increase labor market failures.14 They also need to ensure national and international competitiveness, which the efficiency and relevance of public training sys- will pressure firms to become more innovative, tems, and ensure that labor markets match work- flexible, and cost-conscious. ers' skills with employers. Governments often will Employers may respond to these pressures by need to oversee procedures for occupational stan- investing in the latest technologies, changing the dard-setting,'testing, and certification to make way they organize their work, and emphasizing sure the procedures are reasonable and fair, and the development of the capacity of their work that they can be adapted to changes in technol- force. In these circumstances, education and ogy, product markets, and work organization. training play an important role in developing the The government role in retraining laid-off skills, knowledge, and positive attitudes work- workers, especially those affected by interna- ers need to function effectively. In addition to tional trade, industrial restructuring, and tech- their impact on workers, employers, govern- nological change, is likely to increase. Govern- ments, and trainers, these trends can be expected ments also provide information about labor mar- to have important, less-favorable implications for ket trends which can guide young people as they individuals and social groups with limited ac- choose their careers. Added to this will be the cess to education and training. responsibility to ensure that the education sys- Workers will have to adapt their occupational tem—an important partner of training pro- skills to changing economic and technical de- grams—provides basic skills, such as literacy, velopments, and will need to make up for basic mathematical ability, and conceptual problem- educational deficiencies to do so. Those unable solving. Finally, governments will continue to or unwilling to adapt to changing circumstances, bear the principal responsibility for ensuring that or those trapped in low-wage jobs, will face se- women, disabled persons, and other groups with rious risks of declining real wages and increased special needs have access to training programs. unemployment. Young people—particularly Governments in many developing countries those in competitive, rapidly changing econo- will face additional problems. The number of new mies—who are seeking their first job will need workers is likely to increase rapidly and could to develop core skills, knowledge, and positive grow to many times the number of wage and sal- attitudes if they are to continue to learn through- ary jobs likely to be created, requiring more out their careers. emphasis to be put on self-employment oppor- Employers have the responsibility to provide tunities. Public resources may be a major con- work-related skills; this role should increase in straint and, as the capacity for private sector train- importance in the future. With the increasing ing expands, enterprises and individuals will have convergence of occupational skills and general to share responsibility for financing and provid- education, and the need foT more flexible work ing skills development. forces, employers also will likely be more in- Trainers will have to follow labor market clined to provide general and job-specific train- trends closely and adapt curricula to significant ing. This would be consistent with the experi- changes. Due to the rapid change projected in ence of those countries that have adapted suc- skill requirements, trainers will have to provide cessfully to changing international economic trainees with core skills that will encourage ca- circumstances: employers have given high pri- reer-long learning. The instructional methods ority to providing the training environment and used to learn skills relevant to work and life also Monthly Labor Review September 1994 37 no's Training Programs can be expected to change substantially, in large countries that are in transition from centrally part because of dramatic advances in computer planned to market economies, and in countries and communications technologies. suffering the aftermath of civil war. One significant result of these changes will be the ability to tailor learning objectives to in- dividual needs and learning styles. These new Possible strategies possibilities may substantially alter the structure Clearly, consensus is emerging concerning the of training institutions and the organization of importance ofinvestment in human resources for learning because people of all ages may select economic development. Although ILO decision- what they want to learn and when they will leam makers do not all agree on the specific strategies it. Instructors will continue to evolve into man- to follow regarding investments in training, agers of the learning process and advisers to in- agreement is taking shape about the questions dividual learners. they need to address. For example, they need to agree on what training priorities to establish, how Challenges in developing nations. Many of the to fund training activities and at what levels, how most dramatic and widely discussed trends af- to organize and manage national training sys- fecting training, particularly in industrialized tems, what specific skills to develop, which in- countries, indirectly touch only some of the most structional technologies to choose, who should intractable human resource development chal- be trained, and how training should be evaluated. lenges that developing countries face. In the ur- Because of the importance of identifying and ban informal sector of developing countries, for choosing training alternatives, improving the example, ways to improve the skills of workers process of setting policy is a major ILO priority. and entrepreneurs and the productivity of enter- A number of measures could be taken: prises must be found.15 While traditional apprenticeship has adapted • improve the available information; to the immediate needs of the sector, there is sub- • increase the accountability of trainers for the stantial room for quality improvement. This will effectiveness of training programs; require adapting training methodology, for ex- • analyze training in the context of other politi- ample, to the needs of individuals with low lit- cal, economic, and social systems; eracy, developing new and innovative ways of • establish central and local vocational coordi- providing skills in a structure of very small en- nating bodies and give them authority and re- terprises. Improved training of entrepreneurs, sources to evaluate training programs; especially in business skills, also has an impor- • collaborate with governments and social part- tant contribution to make in improving the pro- ners on the design, implementation, and evalu- ductivity of small enterprises. ation of national training programs; and Although urban areas in developing countries • facilitate the exchange of information by es- are growing rapidly, most of the population con- tablishing multidisciplinary teams. tinues to inhabit rural areas. These areas present Because investment in humans is a means and difficult development problems and challenges a goal of economic development, few doubt that for trainers. One problem of particular concern in the years ahead training will continue to be, to the ILO is the development of rural nonfarm as stated in the ILO constitution, one of the prin- skills that communities need and that are capable cipal means of improving working conditions and of improving incomes. Because very few wage social justice. But for the potential of training to jobs are available in rural areas, opportunities to be realized, its design and operation will have to generate nonfarm income are largely restricted live up to the enduring challenge posed by to self-employment. Therefore, effective train- Eugene Staley 50 years ago: ing programs must be tailored to the skills that small entrepreneurs require and that marketing, What can be done to encourage these human credit, and business advisory services support. qualities of adaptability in all of the countries Much also remains to be done to increase edu- where economic change will demand readjust- cation and training opportunities for women, ments? No doubt something can be hoped for particularly in some of the poorer countries. Sub- as a result of progressive increase in the gen- stantial progress has been made in increasing eral level of education. Perhaps it is even more training and employment opportunities for dis- important to place a new emphasis in educa- abled persons in several countries, but high un- tion on the idea that ours is a world of constant change. Ability to understand new situations, employment rates, often associated with struc- courage and initiative in adjusting to them, both tural adjustment, have diminished opportunities individually and in co-operation with others, are in other nations in recent years. Disabled per- the qualities that will be needed more than ever sons have had a particularly difficult time in in the world of tomorrow.16 D 38 Monthly Labor Review September 3994 Footnotes 1 10 Hector-Hugo Barbagolata, Vocational Training within Thomas Stahl, Barry Nyhan, and Piera d'Aloja, The the System of International Labor Standards (Monti video, Learning Organization: A Vision for Human Resources Uruguay, CINTERFOR ILO, 1991). See also ILO: Human Re- Development (Commission of European Communities, sources Development: Vocational Guidance and Training, 1993). Paid Educational Leave, Report III (Part 4B) (International 1 ' Peter C. Plett, Training of older workers in industrial- Labor Organization, 1991). ized countries (International Labor Organization, Training 2 UNESCO: Glossary of Educational Technology Terms, 2nd Policies Branch, 1990); Peter C. Plett and BrendaT. Lester, ed. (Paris, 1987). Training for older people: A Handbook (International La- 3 Craft and related tradesworkers arc defined under sec- bor Organization, 1991). tion 7 of the Internationa! Standard Classification of Occu- 12 John D, Donahue, "The Ideological Romance of pations. Privatization" in Richard M. Couglin, ed., Morality, Ratio- 4 In-depth Review of the no's Vocational Training Pro- nality and Efficiency: New Perspectives on Socio-Econom- gram, Part (a) - Review of past activities of the no's voca- ics (New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1991); Jon Lauglo, "Vo- tional training program (International Labor Organization cational Training and the Bankers' Faith in the Private Sec- Program, Financial and Administrative Committee, Novem- tor," Comparaiive Education Review, 1992. Also of interest ber 1983). is Paul Collins and Malcolm Wallis, "Privatization, Regula- 3 tion and Development: Some Questions of Training Strat- Kahono Martohandingegoro and Norman Williams, egy," Public Administration and Development, 1990. Human Resource Development through Technical Coopera- tion (International Labor Organization, Joint Inspection Unit, 13 World Bank, World Development Report, 1991: The 1989), p. 23. Challenge of Development (New York, Oxford University 6 ILO: Assessment of Training Aspects of General Techni- Press, 1991). cal Cooperation Projects (International Labor Organization, 14 Jon Middleton, Adrian Ziderman and Avril Von Adams, Committee on Operational Programs, November 1992). Skills for Productivity: Vocational Education and Training 7 Adjustment and Human Resources Development, Report in Developing Countries. See also David Stern and Jozef of the Committee on Human Resources, International Labor M.M, Ritzen, eds., Market Failure in Training?: New Eco- Conference, 79th sess. (Geneva, 1992). nomic Analysis and Evidence on Training of Adult Employ- 8 ees (Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1991). The role of the ILO in technical cooperation, Report VI, 15 International Labor Conference, 80th sess. (Geneva, 1993); ILO concerns with the informal sector were elaborated Report of the Committee on Technical Cooperation, Provi- in Dilemma of the Informal Sector, Report of the Director- sional Record, 80th sess. (Geneva, 1993). General, International Labor Conference, 78th sess. 9 (Geneva, 1991). For a survey of these trends, see International Labor Office, On Business and Work (Geneva, 1993); and Robert 16 Eugene Staley, World Economic Development, Studies B. Reich, The Work of Nations (London, Simon & Schuster, and Reports, Series B (Economic Conditions), No. 36 (In- 1991). ternational Labor Organization, Montreal, 1944), p. 206. Monthly Labor Review September 1994 39