AN UNTRADITIONAL APPROACH TO TRADITIONAL FIRE MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF AUSTRALIA’S ARNHEM LAND FIRE ABATEMENT NORTHERN TERRITORY ORGANIZATION A Research Paper Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Regional Planning by Eliza Grace Blood May 2024 ii CORNELL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE, ART, AND PLANNING DEPARTMENT OF CITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING APPROVAL OF RESEARCH PAPER, PROFESSIONAL REPORT, or THESIS (choose one type of exit project and delete the other two along with this line) Name of Candidate: ELIZA GRACE BLOOD First Name Middle Name/Initial Family/Last Name Graduate Field: CITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING Degree: MASTER OF REGIONAL PLANNING (M.R.P.) Title: AN UNTRADITIONAL APPROACH TO TRADITIONAL FIRE MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF AUSTRALIA’S ARNHEM LAND FIRE ABATEMENT NORTHERN TERRITORY ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE SIGNATURES: Chairperson: Date: Member: Date: LICENSE TO USE COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL I do hereby give license to Cornell University and all of its faculty and staff to use the above- mentioned copyrighted material in any manner consonant with, or pursuant to, the scholarly purposes of Cornell University, including lending such materials to students or others through its library services or through interlibrary services or through interlibrary loan, and delivering copies to sponsors of my research, but excluding any commercial us of such material. This license shall remain valid throughout the full duration of my copyright. _________________________________ Student Signature May 15, 2024 May 16, 2024 © 2024 Eliza Grace Blood ABSTRACT Wildfire is central to Australia’s natural landscape and history. The organization, Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory (ALFA NT), combines traditional fire knowledge with scientific fire knowledge to create a system that challenges conventional wildfire management. My research explores three major questions: how are traditional fire knowledge and scientific fire knowledge being combined in this organization? What impact does knowledge combining have on the environment? What impacts does knowledge combining have on Indigenous communities? ALFA NT combines Indigenous fire wisdom with science in governance and burning methods. Knowledge combining improves environmental outcomes, but also raises concerns about its effect on traditional practices and Indigenous culture. ALFA NT is revolutionary in its approach to fire management, setting the tone for the future of wildfire management across the world. iii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Eliza Blood is a young urban planner with a passion for climate adaptation planning. She is from the Adirondacks in Upstate New York. She attained her Bachelor of Arts in 2021 from Bates College in Maine, after which she became a Food Waste Recycling Intern working for the Town of Brunswick, Maine before pursuing a master’s degree in Regional Planning at Cornell University. Some of her past internships include working with the Cornell Einhorn Center for Community Engagement, supporting the Town of Belgrade, Montana, and interning with the Yellowstone Ecological Research Center. She looks forward to pursuing a future job where she can continue learning about combining Indigenous traditional knowledge with scientific knowledge to create impactful and environmentally just approaches to climate issues. iv This project is dedicated to the Indigenous communities living on Arnhem Land. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thank you to Professor Linda Shi and Professor Stephan Schmidt for challenging me and encouraging me to use this project to explore my interests in wildfire planning and Indigenous livelihoods. I am so grateful to have learned from you both. Thank you to Sierra Hicks for sharing their inspiring research with me and for being so supportive throughout this process. Thank you to the professors and fire practitioners who I spoke with during the fall of 2023 including Bruno Seraphin, Tina Bell, Jeremy Russell- Smith, Alan Anderson, Thomas Duff, and Cameron Yates. I would like to thank my MRP writing/advisee group: Rachel and Julia – for being a supportive team throughout this process. Lastly, I want to thank my family and friends: Mom, Dad, Jake, T.J. and Renée. Love you guys! Thank you all for being a part of my journey. I would not have grown as much as I did without your support. You all mean so much to me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH……………………………………………………..………III DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………..……IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………………….……V TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………….VI LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………..………………………VII LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….….VIII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………...…...IX GLOSSARY..........……………............……………..........………………………………...X 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..…1 2. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………….…4 3. LITERATURE REVIEW: THE FIRE KNOWLEDGE BINARY AND HOPES OF BRIDGING THE DIVIDE………………………………………….…….……7 3.1 UNDERSTANDING THE FIRE MANAGEMENT BINARY………...……7 3.2 TRADITIONAL FIRE KNOWLEDGE (TFK) AND TRADITIONAL FIRE MANAGEMENT…………………………………………………….………9 3.3 SCIENTIFIC FIRE KNOWLEDGE (SFK) AND SCIENTIFIC FIRE MANAGEMENT………………………………………………………...…12 3.4 KNOWLEDGE COMBINING AND AS A PATH FORWARD………...…15 4. CASE STUDY OF ALFA NT: A MODEL OF INDIGENOUS-COLONIAL FIRE MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………………18 4.1 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY’S FIRE ADAPTED ECOSYSTEM….…18 4.2 BLAZING THE WAY FOR ALFA NT…………………………...….….…20 4.3 THE BIRTH OF ALFA NT…………………………………………………23 4.4 ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES……………………………………………24 4.5 REGIONAL INDIGENOUS PARTICIPATION AND GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE…………………………………………………………….…26 4.6 OPERATIONS, FUNDING, AND RESOURCES………………………….30 4.7 ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMBINING……………………..32 5. A DISCUSSION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE COMBINING…………………………..34 5.1 POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL OUTCOMES……………………………35 5.2 NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL OUTCOMES………………………….38 5.3 SOCIOCULTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE COMBINING: INDIGENOUS INCLUSIVITY………………………………………….…40 5.4 INDIGENOUS EXCLUSIVITY AND CONFLICT……………………..…43 5.5 CULTURAL EMPOWERMENT…………………………………………...46 5.6 CULTURAL MANIPULATION……………………………………...……48 6. CONCLUSIONS, UNCERTAINTY, AND THE FUTURE OF FIRE MANAGEMENT…………………………………………………………….…….50 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Comparing Traditional fire knowledge and Scientific fire knowledge......................8 Table 2: Contradicting environmental outcomes produced by ALFA NT.............................33 Table 3: Understanding ALFA NT’s Indigenous involvement or lack thereof......................39 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Research Methodology..........………………………......... ..........…………….......4 Figure 2: Map of Resident Population across Australia (2001-2020)....................................18 Figure 3: ALFA NT Organizational Values...........................................................................24 Figure 4: Mapping Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia........................................….....25 Figure 5: ALFA NT’S Six Regional Project Areas.........................……………...................26 Figure 6: ALFA NT Participatory Governance Structure..............……..........……………..28 Figure 7: Cultural Implications of Knowledge Combining in ALFA NT.......……………...44 ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ALFA NT Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory Limited EDS Early Dry Season Burning LDS Late Dry Season Burning SFK Scientific Fire Knowledge TFK Traditional Fire Knowledge x GLOSSARY Fire Management Definitions *Many of these definitions are sourced from Rodd Dyer’s book Savanna Burning: Understanding and using fire in nothern Australia Arnhem land- The northernmost region of the Northern Territory of Australia that is largely occupied by Indigenous groups living on Indigenous Protected Areas (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2024). Early Dry Season (EDS) burning- Supports patchy fire management made up of burnt and unburnt land that happens at the early part of the dry season (Dyer, 2001). This type of burning produces cooler temperatures for fires and is less intense. Fire intensity- Calculated by considering the fuel load, heat yield, and rate of fire spreading. The units for fire intensity are kilowatts per meter of fire front (Dyer, 2001). Fire regime- Regional fire patterns that are determined by factors like fire intensity, fire frequency, when fires take place, level of fire patchiness, and fuel typology (Dyer, 2001). Fire suppression- Attempting to extinguish fire using methods like back burning. Fuel- Required for fires to light and is often composed of dry vegetational debris. Fuel height, structure, and composition vary throughout the seasons (Dyer, 2001). Fuel typology influences the intensity of fires. Indigenous- Referring to Aboriginals living on the mainland of Australia and Torres Strait Islanders (Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, 2020). My paper uses this term to be inclusive of all Native peoples who are apart of ALFA NT and those who are living in the Northern Australia. Late Dry Season (LDS) burning- These fires are often wildfires that are not man made. They are harder to control given their ability to spread quickly and their higher temperatures that are harmful to plants and animals (Dyer, 2001). xi Prescribed burning- Intentional planning and management of fire to achieve a desired result (Dyer, 2001). Factors to control through management decisions include fire intensity and fire frequency. Traditional Fire Management- Indigenous fire stewardship that is conducted by Indigenous communities and is premised on traditional fire knowledge. This is terminology that my paper uses to describe fire management that ALFA NT refers to as “Aboriginal fire management” in its Annual Reports. Traditional Fire Knowledge- Indigenous knowledge about fire that is rooted in culture, lore, stewardship, and relationally with land and fire. This is terminology that my paper uses to describe fire management that ALFA NT refers to as Aboriginal knowledge in their Annual Reports. Western Scientific Fire Knowledge- Fire knowledge that is based on science and ecology and is largely utilized by settler fire agencies. This is the terminology that ALFA NT uses in its Annual Reports. Wildfires- Natural and unexpected fires that can be highly destructive and hard to control. xii PREFACE My name is Eliza, and I am from Upstate New York. I recognize my position as a settler who is writing about Indigenous communities who are native to Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia. I approached my research of the Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory non-profit with an open mind and have considered the ethics of my research throughout this process. By no means am I trying to speak for the Indigenous communities that I studied, but rather my aim was to amplify the narratives and observations that have been published about this organization while also acknowledging the limitations of my own perspective. I hope my research contributes to the larger global conversation of knowledge hierarchies in wildfire management and future collaboration between Indigenous communities and settler fire practitioners in this field. 1 1. INTRODUCTION From the spring of 2019 to the fall of 2020, wildfires charred over 50 million acres of land in Australia, causing a loss in 20% of Australia’s forests, 33 fatalities, and many panicked Aussies (University of Oxford, 2020). This megafire season became known as Black Summer due to the vast amounts of destruction that it left in its path. Wildfire catastrophes like this one instilled fear in Australians, making wildfire suppression seem like the only solution to preventing future wildfire destruction. While fire can be fatally catastrophic, the antidote to mitigating fire impacts is not accomplished solely by wildfire suppression policies and tactics, as this form of fire management causes fuel accumulation leading to increased wildfire intensity (Kreider, 2024). For instance, Indigenous traditional fire management acts as a remedy as it supports intentional prescribed burning to prevent destructive wildfires from spreading through managing the accumulation of fuel. The Northern Territory of Australia supports an alternative management strategy through encouraging collaboration among Indigenous communities, fire ecologists, and the Australian government creating an unconventional approach to wildfire management. This approach combines traditional fire knowledge and Western scientific fire knowledge to establish a seasonal prescribed burning operation that is driven by Indigenous communities and backed by fire science. Western scientific fire knowledge is manifested in technology and fire ecology, while traditional fire knowledge reflects a fire regime that is focused on seasonal burning, spirituality, and culture. This knowledge fusion has never been done before and is rewriting the national and global narrative around wildfire planning. My paper conducts a case study of the Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory (ALFA NT) non-profit to explore the combining of Western scientific and 2 traditional fire knowledge. ALFA NT is located on Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and is an Aboriginal owned non-profit that funds Indigenous-driven prescribed burns, creating environmental benefits like reductions in greenhouse gas and carbon abatement that are packaged and sold as carbon credits. Corporations like the liquefied gas plant ConocoPhillips have partnered with ALFA NT in the past to offset their environmentally detrimental business practices through purchasing organizational carbon credits known as Australian Carbon Credit Units (ACCUs). ALFA NT is becoming a model of inclusive wildfire planning through Indigenous involvement and green enterprise through carbon abatement. My research addresses three questions pertaining to the process and impacts of this organization: how are traditional fire knowledge and Western scientific fire knowledge being combined in this organization? What impact does this combined knowledge system have on the environment? What impact does this combined knowledge system have on Indigenous communities? To answer these questions, my paper discovers how traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management are being combined within ALFA NT’s model. I assess the environmental and sociocultural implications of this knowledge combining which reveal the strengths and weaknesses of this organization. My research answers these questions by synthesizing organizational responses from anthropological papers and fire ecology reports written about this organization. In the following sections, my literature review contextualizes the disconnects and overlaps between traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management and 3 proposes knowledge combining as a potential means of fusing these strategies. My methodology discusses my research process to develop the key components of this case study. The next section provides background information about the process by which ALFA NT was formed, how it operates today and how it combines traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management. My results and discussion reveal the environmental and social implications of ALFA NT’s knowledge combining. ALFA NT’s knowledge combining process benefits the environmental health of Northern Australia. Western scientific fire management is enhanced during this process, while traditional fire management may or may not. The sociocultural implications of this organization ranging from Indigenous participation to cultural manipulation lack consensus. Issues of power, organizational transparency, and Indigenous cultural impacts should be explored further in this model by engaging with ALFA NT employees and neighboring Indigenous communities. Despite its flaws, ALFA NT is restructuring the way we think about fire, the environment, and leadership in fire management. 4 2. METHODOLOGY: CASE STUDY OF ALFA NT My interest in studying Northern Australia’s traditional fire management stemmed from a research paper that I wrote last spring about the barriers that the Karuk tribes face in conducting cultural burns in California. The political, social, and cultural barriers preventing the Karuk tribe from burning are experienced by many Indigenous communities across the world. I wondered about alternative solutions to this issue through exploring various case studies that could challenge these barriers and facilitate the acceptance of traditional fire management practices. Figure 1: Research methodology Through additional research, I discovered the fusion of fire knowledge and management being done by the Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory (ALFA NT) organization supporting the fusion of traditional fire knowledge and Western scientific fire knowledge. This fire management model stands out because of its unique goals to meet both the specific fire-related needs of the local Indigenous communities and the broader 5 national targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. ALFA NT has established an organizational platform that challenges barriers to traditional fire management by empowering local Indigenous peoples to take the lead. Since beginning my research of ALFA NT in August 2023, my research process has continually evolved. While I had initially hoped to conduct remote interviews with Aboriginal Rangers, Traditional Owners, and other stakeholders involved in this organization, I was unable to do so given both my project’s timeline and limited correspondence with ALFA NT. I did informally meet with various Australian professors and fire ecologists during the Fall of 2023. These meetings helped develop my understanding of ALFA NT and traditional fire management in the Northern Territory. In these informal meetings I was also exposed to the existing Northern and Southern fire management divide that exists because of regional differences in geography, demographics, and philosophy around traditional fire management. Since I was unable to speak with members of ALFA NT, my methodology shifted to completing a meta-analysis to understand the academic and practitioner responses to ALFA NT’s traditional fire management. I hoped to qualitatively code journal articles written by academics and fire practitioners from diverse backgrounds. Unfortunately, my sample size for this methodology was limited, yielding results that felt incomplete and tenuous. I eventually decided to write a case study focused research paper, which felt more feasible considering the constraints of my research process. My research paper is inclusive of many different types of sources and literature ranging from anthropological accounts concentrated on ALFA NT’s participatory governance structure to fire ecology reports of 6 this organization’s environmental impact. This method of data collection combines quantitative fire data and qualitative anthropological observation narratives and informal interviews to shape a full vision of this organization. Nevertheless, this methodological process has some limitations. One limitation of writing a research-based case study is that the results are highly subjective and specific to ALFA NT. Additionally, there are few Indigenous authors within this collection of literature, meaning that most of the sources I integrated into this paper are written from a settler perspective. If there were more representation of Indigenous voices, specifically those of Aboriginal Rangers and Traditional Owners involved in ALFA NT, then there would be more first-person accounts of ALFA NT’s process and impacts. Despite its limitations, researching this case study gave me a deeper understanding of ALFA NT’s organizational journey and how it is responded to across diverse literature. 7 3. LITERATURE REVIEW: THE FIRE KNOWLEDGE BINARY AND HOPES OF BRIDGING THE DIVIDE Early European explorers noticed fire on Australia’s landscape from the day they saw the mainland. James Cook remarked that Australia was “the continent of smoke” as fires seemed to be continuously raging along the coastline (Pyne, 1991, p. 136). These fires were lit by Indigenous communities who were dependent on fire for survival and cultural wellbeing. Little did these colonizers know that Indigenous communities lit at least 5000 bushfires every year to maintain their livelihoods and way of life (Pyne, 1991). Early European observations of Indigenous traditional fire management were fraught with confusion and fear. While Indigenous burns near watering holes were often meant to curb overgrowth, purge bad spirits and clear out spiders and noxious weeds, these fires were also meant to prevent early Europeans from setting foot onshore (Pyne, 1991). The 19th century marked the beginning of early settler's use of fire as a tool. With recent increases in wildfire frequency and intensity, has caused fire management to evolve across Australia. Western scientific fire management and Indigenous traditional fire management have historically been separated but are now in conversation more than they have ever before. 3.1 UNDERSTANDING THE FIRE MANAGEMENT BINARY Comparing traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management has continued to exist in binaries until recently. This fire management binary is multifaceted as 8 it illustrates differences in fire management’s purpose, methodology, and actors involved (see Table 1). Table 1: Comparing Traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management Source: Inspired by Martha Johnson findings in Lore: Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge (1992) Traditional fire management supported by traditional fire knowledge and is concentrated on Indigenous cultural connection to fire supported by intuition and spiritual connection to land by Indigenous communities. Western scientific fire management is 9 guided by Western scientific fire knowledge and is focused on fire suppression and protecting the wild land urban interface through technological analysis by formal bushfire brigades and advisory groups. The major divides between traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management include management purpose, burning methodology, knowledge sharing, fire management practitioners, and so on. At the same time, there are overlaps seen in the importance of observations as well as the use of similar fire practices (like prescribed burning and use of fire breaks). 3.2 TRADITIONAL FIRE KNOWLEDGE (TFK) AND TRADITIONAL FIRE MANAGEMENT For millennia, fire management has been crucial to Indigenous livelihoods. Traditional fire management is premised on traditional fire knowledge (TFK), which refers to the Indigenous cultural understandings of fire. When speaking about the native peoples of Australia, I use the terminology Indigenous to be inclusive of Torres Strait Islanders and Aboriginal Australians who live on the mainland of the country. These Indigenous communities all rely of traditional TFK to steward native ecosystems, supporting tribal community health and culture, and survival. TFK supports a healthy landscape through rejuvenating plant life, controlling organism populations and maintaining soil fertility. Fire is seasonal in Australia and Indigenous groups often burn at the beginning of the dry season as it allows them to conduct cooler burns that are less destructive to land. These cooler burns help achieve a myriad of tribal objectives like clearing walking paths through burning undergrowth, supporting the growth 10 of sprouting plants to feed game animals like kangaroos, for “cleaning” country, and for fulfilling cultural goals (Dyer, 2001, p. 50). Many native animals are fire-adapted and will even appear at these burns as this type of fire supports their life cycle. For instance, fire attracts seed birds who are: happy because they will get access to all the grass seeds on the ground once the grass is burned. Some of the bigger birds can’t get to the seeds underneath the dry grass easily in many places…But once the grass is burnt they have free range, and fly to the ground for a feed or seed (Steffensen, 2020, p. 156- 157). Traditional fire knowledge understands the complex relationships that native plant and animal species have with fire, as they are considered sacred. Knowing when to burn and when not to burn is based on the environment. Traditional fire management is viewed to protect the environment and a way to honor the spiritual and cultural significance of all living things. Traditional fire management is also one way in which disparate health impacts can be reduced (Burgess et al, 2005). Australia’s “Caring for Country” campaign supports aboriginal-led natural resource management across Australia that supports Indigenous wellbeing and the environment (Burgess et al, 2005). The term “Country" is defined as “the lands, waters and skies to which they are connected through ancestral ties and family origins” (Pol, 2023). Traditional fire management is one form of “Caring for Country” as it encourages Traditional Elders to be active by walking which boosts physical health through encouraging regular movement (Steffensen, 2020). “Caring for Country” improves physical health, strengthens cultural connections, and reinforces kinship with the landscape. 11 Fire creates and sustains life and because of this Indigenous communities view its power as a gift. In Australia, this gift of fire is believed to come from Goorda God. When Goorda first bestowed fire onto Earth, his flames accidentally killed a group of boys (Pyne, 1991). To prevent other incidents like this from happening in the future, Goorda and man discussed a way for fire to be seen as a strategic tool and not as something to fear or exploit (Pyne, 1991). Goorda teaches about the importance of intentionality and moderation in traditional fire management that is central to these practices. There are other spiritual components central to traditional fire management too. Natural lore embedded within traditional fire knowledge guides fire management. This lore is composed of five elements including earth, water, fire, wind, and the cosmos that all must be respected within fire management to prevent environmental degradation (Steffensen, 2020). Additionally, fire supports spiritual ceremonies and coming of age rituals. For instance, in the Caddell River region of Western Australia men gain the right to use fire in cooking and other things following circumcision as a symbol of entry into manhood (Dyer, 2001). When conducting a traditional burn fire, practitioners will often communicate with spirits through song to pay their respects (Steffensen, 2020). Smoke from intentional burns is also important to aboriginal culture. For example, smoke is often used to indicate presence, or a ceremonial gathering is taking place in a given area (Fache and Moizo, 2015). Australian Indigenous communities view Western scientific fire management as destroying land as it is often responsible for charring native trees, burning at the wrong time, incinerating too much fuel and killing food sources and medicinal plants that are central Indigenous livelihoods (Steffensen, 2020). For instance, Victor Steffensen, an Indigenous fire practitioner and member of the Tagalaka tribe asks in his book Fire Country, “How can 12 they make fire management decisions for the land by sitting in an office looking at maps?” (Steffensen, 2020, p. 88).His question illustrates Indigenous responses to Western scientific fire management when asked about its efficacy. The technology, equipment, and actors involved in Western scientific fire management differ from the burning methodology of Indigenous fire management. Fire management is done collaboratively across tribes, clans, and families. Rather than approaching fire management in a formulaic manner, Indigenous traditional fire management is conducive to “reading” the natural environment by taking cues from native plants and animals (Steffensen, 2020). Indigenous elders share this knowledge with their children and grandchildren so that future generations can carry on these traditions. Traditional fire management methodology is community-based by emphasizing the importance of intergenerational fire knowledge sharing and tribal inclusivity that have deep roots. Unlike Western scientific fire management, Indigenous communities have never worn Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) while conducting burns. Indigenous communities think wearing PPE when lighting fires is unnecessary, if not comical (Steffensen, 2020). Wearing PPE is not a part of traditional burning practices and Indigenous fire practitioners' comfort with fire management makes this settler requirement and expectation for practicing fire management seem outrageous. Traditional fire management highlights an approach to fire that is rooted in community, environmental health, spirituality, and traditional lore. While Indigenous fire management exists throughout the world, it looks different across various tribes. Traditional 13 fire management supports burning methodologies that are holistic in their support of the native ecosystem and Indigenous livelihoods. 3.3 WESTERN SCIENTIFIC FIRE KNOWLEDGE AND WESTERN SCIENTIFIC FIRE MANAGEMENT Historically, Western scientific fire management has been more concentrated on hazard reduction burning with the intention of protecting communities, infrastructure, and the natural environment from future wildfires. The terminology “Western scientific fire knowledge” is used in ALFA NT’s Annual Reports to describe the burning done by settler communities. Hazard reduction burns protect the zone where human settlement meets forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other native ecosystems known as the “Wildland Urban Interface” (WUI) (Jones, 2022). This protection is mainly focused on suppressing wildfires for the safety of people and property as fires in the WUI are harder to control, can be highly destructive, and are more likely to be started accidentally. Fire bans, burning permits, and firebreaks are three means of achieving fire suppression to protect Australia’s WUI (Dyer, 2001). Fire Bans prevent future fires from being lit during a given period of time. Burning permits restrict the number and size of prescribed fires that can happen at a given time. Local issuing officials monitor the fire conditions to determine if fire permits can be offered based on seasonal conditions (Dyer, 2001). Firebreaks stop wildfires from spreading by creating a barrier that stops the burn. Western scientific fire management prioritizes the safety of communities and the WUI from wildfire damage and loss of life. 14 Western scientific fire knowledge embodies a quantifiable and data driven approach to fire management. Western scientific fire knowledge focuses on statistics and figures with quantitative data at its heart (Lepine, 2009). This knowledge is applied uniformly to larger- scale scenarios and is efficient at detecting broad causation (Fabricius et al, 2006). Western scientific fire knowledge is communicated through published papers, textbooks, and graphs as largely quantifiable data. This published data can be used to create fire modeling software that predicts future fires based on aerial imagery, weather patterns, and fuel typology. The scientific method of hypothesizing, data gathering, analyzing, and presenting findings is hegemonic. Wester scientific fire management is based on observation achieved by relying on technology to physically conduct burns and to monitor fires. Tools like fire hot spot mapping, fire scar history maps and meteorological data all inform this type of fire management (Dyer, 2001). To Indigenous communities, Western scientific fire management’s reliance on technology to burn illustrates how humanity is becoming detached from the land as they are losing their ability to identify signs in the environment that point to environmental health and necessary areas for burning (Steffensen, 2020). Nevertheless, this fire modeling software supports monitoring fires from afar and helps predict when the next wildfire will spark. Wildfire management in Australia is dictated by states. Each Australian state has its own bushfire advisory group and voluntary bushfire brigades that work together to support the fire-related needs of these jurisdictions. The bushfire advisory group is made up of a bushfire council and regional committees for each region of a given state. The bushfire council is responsible for mitigation, management, and suppression of fires within their state 15 (Northern Territory Government, 2023). Regional Committees are made up of appointed members who advise the bushfire council on regional decision making (Northern Territory Government, 2023). There are several bushfire brigades in each state that practice fire suppression and educate their communities about the dangers of fire (Northern Territory Government, 2023). Firefighters are required to protect themselves when fighting fires and conducting prescribed burns by wearing specific Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Hard hats, boots, neon over trousers, high visibility safety vests, gloves and masks are often worn by firefighters (NSW, 2018). Safety is of the utmost importance to Western scientific fire management as evident in firefighter uniforms, management priorities, and reliance of technology to track and predict future wildfires in Australia. 3.4 KNOWLEDGE COMBINING AS PATH FORWARD While traditional fire management and Western scientific fire management have long existed in a binary, they do have overlapping characteristics. Knowledge combining, formerly known as co-production, is the iterative process of knowledge sharing and collaborating that strengthens social capital, develops networks, increases capacity, and brings stakeholders together (Norström et al, 2020). While the fusion of knowledge can have drawbacks. Overall, combining knowledge is one way to bring together traditional fire knowledge and Western scientific fire knowledge to create a shared fire management structure. Combining knowledge can create mutual networks, innovative ideas, and empower Indigenous communities. This empowering process establishes trust, reciprocity, and 16 collaboration amongst stakeholders. Fire knowledge combining focused on community resource management and Indigenous-led decision benefit the health and wellbeing of these peoples as well (Berry et al, 2010). These are just a few of the many benefits of combining knowledge that result from the formation of an alternative fire management system in Australia. On the other hand, Indigenous knowledge is complex and often loses its value when removed from its cultural context. Indigenous knowledge isn't just found in white papers. It's lived, shared, and learned through experiences on the land and in relationships with others (Latulippe and Klenk, 2020). Traditional fire knowledge does not fit the ideological mold that Western scientific data does as it often loses its value when taken out of context (Nadasdy, 1999). Rather than empowering Indigenous communities this process of knowledge combining can have the reverse effect through appropriating traditional knowledge (Nadasdy, 1999). Despite these risks in knowledge combining, the organization, the Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory (ALFA NT) combines fire ecology with Indigenous traditional fire management in the Northern Territory of Australia. The rest of my paper will explore this organization’s naissance, impacts and implications. This exploration will attempt answer three research questions: how are traditional fire knowledge and Western scientific fire knowledge being combined in this organization? What impact does knowledge combining have on the environment? What impacts does knowledge combining have on Indigenous communities? 17 The next section explains ALFA NT’s background and how it operates today. This section concludes by discussing how Western scientific fire knowledge is fused with traditional fire knowledge within this system. 18 4. CASE STUDY OF ALFA NT: A MODEL OF INDIGENOUS-COLONIAL FIRE MANAGEMENT This chapter will discuss Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory’s (ALFA NT) organizational structure by answering the following questions: why is fire management necessary to the Northern Territory of Australia? How did ALFA NT come to be? What is the purpose of this organization? Who is involved in this organization? What are the roles of ALFA NT employees? What resources are needed to support the operation of this organization? These questions will guide the analysis of this organization’s process by exploring ALFA NT’s mission and goals, inclusive participation, and required resources to operate. This chapter will also explore how ALFA NT is combining Western scientific fire management with traditional fire management. The responses to this fusion of fire management approaches reveal tension surrounding organizational components like Indigenous involvement and fire management techniques. 4.1 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY’S FIRE ADAPTED ECOSYSTEM Different Australian jurisdictions have unique fire regimes experience wildfires and require that varying amounts of prescribed burning. The Northern Territory savanna ecosystem makes up one fifth of Australia which experiences frequent burning compared to the rest of the country (Dyer, 2001). Northern Australia burns almost millions of square kilometers on an annual basis, which is partially also due to the lower population density per capita relative to the rest of the country (Dyer, 2001) (see Figure 2). This region experiences 19 a wet season from September to October and a dry season during the rest of the year when most fires take place (Dyer, 2001). Figure 2: Resident population across Australia measured between 2001-2021 Data source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001-2002 An optimal fire regime supports the needs of local pastoralists, Indigenous groups, property owners, and conservationists living in the Northern Territory, all of whom rely on fire management for different reasons. Fire impacts all parts of life on savannas, including plant health, water resources, access to nutrients, hydrology, animals, and entire habitats (Dyer, 2001). Savanna ecosystems are home to an enormous amount of biodiversity, much of which relies on regular fires. 20 Burning also supports the needs of pastoral communities living here. Fire can be applied to pastoral land to control weeds, which is a more cost-effective alternative to traditional pastureland management (Dyer, 2001). Burning is central to the health of the environment and pastoralism in the Northern Territory. At the same time, wildfires can be challenging to control and are often unexpected. If they are not managed properly, wildfires can damage buildings, cause habitat degradation, create unhealthy air quality, and so on. It's the job of the Northern Territory’s fire management system to strike a balance between preventing wildfires from spreading, while also using prescribed fire to support the environmental and financial needs of the Northern Territory. 4.2 BLAZING THE WAY FOR ALFA NT While environmental governance in Australia has historically invalidated the livelihoods and rights of Indigenous communities, there has been a more recent shift granting Indigenous communities the right to own land and practice traditional fire management. During Australia’s postcolonial era, Indigenous communities were given exclusive ownership of their lands and natural resources under land rights legislation. However, starting in the 1960’s non-aboriginal Australians viewed aboriginal land stewardship as being “passive" or even “parasitic,” creating a strong distinction between ‘the colonized’ and ‘the colonizers’ environmental impact (Fache and Moizo, 2015). This changed when Welsh-Australian archaeologist, Rhys Jones, coined the term “fire-stick farming”, which referred to Indigenous fire traditions central to Indigenous livelihoods 21 (Fache and Moizo, 2015). Additionally, the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act of 1976 further supported aboriginal peoples through allowing them to legally own land through granted land rights (Fache and Moizo, 2015). This was followed by the Native Title Act of 1993 which further honored Indigenous land ownership through native land titles (Fache and Moizo, 2015). In the 1990’s, discussions started between Indigenous Traditional Owners, those tied tribal land, and western and central Arnhem Land scientists about supporting a healthier country through strengthening natural firescapes (Altman et al, 2020). In 1997, an assessment was published by the Bawinga Association and the Parks and Wildfire Commission of the Northern Territory which validated that traditional fire management regimes are lower intensity, burned earlier seasonal fires, and native biodiversity was maintained (Dyer, 2001). This assessment emphasized the promise held in traditional fire management in contrast to contemporary fire regimes. At the same time, the ‘Caring for Country’ Indigenous-led campaign was taking place supporting aboriginal stewardship practices like traditional fire management (Altman, 2020). Australia’s ‘Caring for Country' campaign advocated for Indigenous-led environmental stewardship through traditional practices like fire management. This campaign established the Indigenous Protected Area (IPA) Program in 1997 (Australian Institute, n.d). Around this time a Caring for Country Unit was created in the Australian federal government to provide funding to Indigenous ranger programs across the country (Australian Institute, n.d.). The values from this campaign are baked into ALFA NT’s model as a result of the influence of this social movement in Australian history. 22 International convenings, like the conference of parties for the UN Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), propelled the formation of ALFA NT as well. The 1997 COP 3 of the UNFCCC was held in Kyoto, Japan. At this conference, Australia was exposed for exceeding their greenhouse gas emissions target by 8% (The Australia Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, 1998). This meeting led to the passage of the Kyoto Protocol, a binding document for 37 countries to reduce their emissions (United Nations, n.d.). The Kyoto Protocol meant that Australia had to establish a plan for reducing and monitoring its emissions to meet its set targets (United Nations, n.d.). These conferences led to the passage of Australia’s Carbon Farming Initiative in 2011 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2022). The purpose of this initiative is to encourage land-based carbon offset projects across the country.This legislation established a carbon credit unit issuance platform that codifies offset project eligibility through reporting measures and applicable methodologies (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2022). Another crucial component of this initiative is its creation of the Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF), which is a program meant to incentivize businesses and corporations to reduce their GHG emissions through rethinking their business practices (Emissions Reduction Fund, 2023). The Clean Energy Regulator body monitors to ERF and was also established in 2011 (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, n.d.). The Clean Energy Regulator, made up of a chair and four members, helps achieve national emissions goals through supporting the aims of climate change law and biodiversity law (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, n.d.). The direct results of both of this legislation led to Australia’s consistent reduction in GHG emissions. 23 The Kyoto Protocol, the Caring for Country campaign, and the 1997 fire management assessment all led to the formation of the West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (WAFLA) pilot project to reduce carbon emissions through encouraging traditional fire management in West Arnhem land. The Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act of 2011 established a state-supported emissions reduction trading scheme for Australian Carbon Credit Units (ACCUs), each of which is equal 1 ton of carbon. This legislation was followed by the government regulated: Indigenous Carbon Farming Fund under the Carbon Farming Initiative Act which encouraged the production of ACCUs through aboriginal stewardship practices (Altman, 2020). National and international policy created legal backing for the birth of WALFA in 2006. 4.3 THE BIRTH OF ALFA NT The purpose of the West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (WAFLA) pilot program was to support carbon emission reduction through traditional fire management. This project qualifies as a form of carbon abatement because the early dry season burning that it supports releases fewer greenhouse gases than wildfires that burn later in the fire season and at a hotter temperature. Given the time of year and the temperature of these traditional burns, they sequester carbon through tree biomass, and emit less Methane and Nitrous Oxide, than their counterparts (Murphy, 2023). The ghg offset created by these cooler burns is significant, making this project attractive to corporations looking to offset their environmental impact. The carbon credits that are produced by these offsets are purchased by the Australian government, sold to corporate partners, or are stored for redistribution at a 24 later date. ConocoPhillips was WALFA’s main corporate partner and contracted WALFA to abate 100,000 tons of carbon emissions per year through fire management (Altman et al, 2020). This abatement helped offset the emissions created by ConocoPhillips liquefied gas plant in Darwin, Australia. This partnership sparked interest in ALFA NT as a source of emission reductions. Following the completion of WALFA’s pilot program, this program changed its name to the “Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory Limited” (AFLA NT) as the program expanded throughout the Northern Territory (Altman, 2020). Today, there are 79 savanna fire management projects in Northern Australia that make up about 10% of Australia’s total carbon trading system (Consultation Hub, n.d.). 4.4 ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES Through combining knowledge, ALFA NT prides itself on supporting the needs of Indigenous communities and the health of the natural environment. ALFA NT’s mission is to “protect, preserve and care for the environment through abatement of greenhouse gas emissions by means of bushfire-management activities” (Hinkson, 2020, p. 435). Within ALFA NT’s Annual 2022 Report, there are five organizational values that are supported by ALFA NT (see Figure 3). These values include, protecting the environment through reducing greenhouse gases, preserving native biodiversity, supporting Indigenous traditional practices, generating revenue for Indigenous communities, and encouraging Indigenous participation (ALFA NT, 2022). These organizational priorities respect the needs of local 25 Indigenous communities, reduce national greenhouse gas emissions, and redefine fire management by embracing different types of fire knowledge. Figure 3: ALFA NT Organizational Values Source: Inspired by ALFA (NT) Limited Annual Report 2022, page 7 ALFA NT’s organizational values align with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals that are a part of the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (ALFA NT, 2022). The UN’s agenda focuses on achieving global environmental justice by acknowledging the needs of marginalized communities, addressing the environmental impacts of climate change, and by making cities and communities more sustainable (ALFA NT, 2022). ALFA NT’s model aims to support Indigenous livelihoods, reduce greenhouse 26 gas emissions, and create mutually beneficial relationships between stakeholders involved in fire management in Northern Australia all of which are congruent with the UN’s global agenda. 4.5 REGIONAL INDIGENOUS PARTICIPATION AND GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE There are four IPAs in this region: Djelk, Warddeken, South East Arnhem Land, and Laynhapuy (Altman et al, 2020) (see Figure 4). The Aboriginal ranger groups who are involved in the stewardship of these IPAs include: the Adjumarllarl, the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation; the Jawoyn Association Aboriginal Corporation; the Laynhapuy Homelands Aboriginal Corporation; Mimal Land Management; the Warddeken Land Management Limited; the Arafura Swamp Rangers Aboriginal Corporation; the Yugul Mangi; and Numbulwar Numburindi (Altman et al, 2020). These tribes are all members of ALFA NT. ALFA NT membership is open to any Indigenous member of these organizations that is living on Arnhem land (ALFA NT, 2022). 27 Figure 4: Mapping Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia Source: Australian Government Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet ALFA NT manages tens of thousands of kilometers of land in the Northern Territory. ALFA NT is made up of six regional project areas. These include: the West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (WALFA) project, the Central Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (CALFA) project, the South East Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (SEALFA) project, the South East Arnhem Land Fire Abatement 2 (SEALFA2) project, the North East Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (NEALFA) project, and the Northwest Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (NALFA) project (ALFA NT, 2022) (see Figure 5). These project areas create jurisdictions within ALFA NT that have their own membership and governing power. 28 Figure 5: ALFA NT’s Six Regional Project Areas Source: Figure based off of graphic in ALFA (NT) Limited Annual Report 2022, page 4 Supporting Indigenous connection with land through organizational participation is central to ALFA NT’s values. Indigenous involvement and membership are encouraged in ALFA NT. Organized events like “cultural camps” connect Indigenous youth and elders to facilitate traditional knowledge sharing and relationship building (ALFA NT, 2022). These gatherings facilitate fire knowledge sharing to create intergenerational wisdom about the importance and practices of traditional fire management. 29 ALFA NT’s governance structure is premised on a series of checks and balances across parts of the organization (see Figure 6). There are 11 Indigenous Ranger Groups that manage six fire project areas. Each of the eleven Aboriginal Ranger groups are responsible for creating their own unique Fire Management Plans (Altman, 2020). The nine membership classes represent the operational areas of the Ranger Groups. There are also 18 Aboriginal Directors who make up ALFA NT’s Board of Directors. Aboriginal Directors assist with decision-making, community engagement, capacity building, and advocacy. There are two Aboriginal directors per membership class. Each director serves for three years and is responsible for supporting “strategic direction, leadership, and the culture and values of the organization” (Altman et al, 2020, p. 8). Directors also monitor ALFA NT’s membership procedures as well. ALFA NT’s participatory governance structure supports inclusive Indigenous involvement that balances the roles and responsibilities of traditional fire management across the organization. 30 Figure 6: ALFA NT Participatory Governance Structure Source: Created by author 4.6 OPERATIONS, FUNDING, AND RESOURCES ALFA NT’s funding comes from its affiliation with the Australian Carbon Credit market and the Australian government. The production of carbon credits from this process is broken down into three steps: production, sale, and distribution. The first step in this process happens when Aboriginal Rangers consult with Traditional Owners and local landowners about their burn plans they create prior to the burning season (Altman, 2020). Burning is done on the ground and aerially from a helicopter often using a licensed incendiary machine known as a Raindance Machine (Altman, 2020). This equipment is used in Western 31 scientific fire management. These aerial burns are supported by more traditional fire practices done on foot. These burns are more granular and require the use of drip torches that can achieve goals like creating burn barriers to cultural sites and protecting native food sources so they can be foraged by Indigenous communities (Altman, 2020). Aboriginal Rangers rely on prescribed burning techniques borrowed from TFK and SFK to achieve the needs of their respective Fire Management Plans. Next, ALFA NT confers with the Australian Clean Energy Regulator body to convert measured carbon into ACCUs. Carbon abatement is calculated from these burns using the Savanna Burning Abatement Tool that estimates the carbon abatement of projects based on GIS fire scar maps (Australian Government, n.d.). Lastly, these ACCUs enter the carbon market and are either sold to the Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) or to other similar markets. While carbon credit sales are confidential, in 2018 AFLA NT profited over $31 from credit sales, which assumes that this is a highly profitable operation (Altman et al, 2020). Beyond funding from ACCU profits, ALFA NT receives additional funding from the Australian government through programs like the Indigenous Protected Area (IPA) and Indigenous Advancement Strategy (IAS) along with philanthropic efforts as well (Altman et al 2020). This funding supports fire management projects that require traveling long distances, burning large swaths of land, and hiring enough employees to complete these projects (Altman et al., 2020). Organizational funding also goes towards paying employees and purchasing helicopters and other types of equipment that are required for this organization to operate. AFLA NT is recognized for being resource-intensive given the size 32 and the scope of this operation. ALFA NT’s finances are highly dependent on its annual funding and necessary resources for its seasonal operations. 4.7 ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMBINING ALFA NT is known for its holistic approach to wildfire management by combining Western scientific fire knowledge (SFK) with traditional fire knowledge (TFK) as depicted in this organization’s burning methodology and participatory governance structure. For instance, early season burning that is central to traditional fire management is integrated into ALFA NT’s management model as it produces prescribed burns that are easier to control, making them less destructive to local ecosystems. Traditional fire management also supports reading the land through on the ground burning which is another component of ALFA NT’s fire management system. Technology used in SFK is used by ALFA NT as well to monitor burns by using aerial burn imagery. By using this software, ALFA NT analyzes vegetational fuel typology, fuel accumulation, predicted combustion rate, emissions produced from fuel types, and fire management project mapping before managing fires (ALFA NT, 2022). By combining technology used in Western scientific fire management with traditional fire management burning seasonality and practice, ALFA NT created a fused burning methodology. Inclusive participation in ALFA NT is illustrated in this organization’s participatory approach to organizational membership and governance. ALFA NT offers membership to Indigenous groups living in the Northern Territory. Traditional Owners guide fire 33 management projects and are accompanied by Aboriginal Rangers, similar to the burning methodology in traditional fire management. The willingness to include Indigenous participation in this organization demonstrates a departure from the norm seen in many global fire management organizations, where white, settler fire practitioners typically dominate wildfire planning. The chapter will explore the socio-cultural and environmental implications combining knowledge within ALFA NT. 34 5. A DISCUSSION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE COMBINING ALFA NT integrates diverse forms of fire knowledge, challenges conventional divisions in fire knowledge management, and focuses fire management efforts on socio ecological restoration. This chapter attempts to answer the two questions that guided this research: What are the impacts that combining knowledge has on the environment? What are the impacts that this knowledge combining has on Indigenous communities? Understanding the environmental implications and sociocultural implications of this model will help to answer these questions. The environmental implications of this model prove that Western scientific fire management benefits from being combined with traditional fire management. This knowledge combining produces environmental benefits. However, more research is required understand whether traditional fire management and Indigenous communities benefit from this knowledge combining process. Research Question: What are the impacts that this knowledge combining has on the environment? ALFA NT’s environmental implications are contested amongst scholars and fire practitioners across the world. Some argue that ALFA NT’s knowledge combining has negative environmental implications like increased wildfire size and loss of biodiversity. Others argue that this process produces beneficial environmental outcomes like ghg emission reductions and preserving natural assets like soil and water (see Table 2). Despite these debates, traditional fire management complements Western scientific fire management 35 because of the environmental benefits that it integrates in the fusion of these fire management systems. Table 2: Positive and Negative Environmental Outcomes of Knowledge Combining 5.1 POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL OUTCOMES Some of the positive environmental implications of knowledge fusion include things like strengthening food security, assisting in the procurement of naturally found medicinal components, protecting natural assets, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting biodiversity conservation, enabling organizational profits to be reinvested in environmental health, and decreased intensity of wildfires. These positive environmental outcomes not only 36 support a healthy environment, but they also support the health and wellbeing of communities living in the Northern Territory and the rest of Australia. Conserving biodiversity promotes the availability of both indigenous food and medicinal resources. Fire supports Indigenous food systems as it facilitates hunting and foraging. Many organisms living in the savanna rely on burning because they are fire adapted. Indigenous communities rely on some of these plants and animals as food sources that will continue to sustain their livelihoods. Seasonal fire management assists with subsistence hunting, germinating edible plants, and managing pastures. Animals like wallabies, goanna, bush turkey, and kangaroos, which are central to Indigenous diets, are easier to hunt if land is regularly burned so that sightlines are clearer (McKemey et al., 2020). Hunting is important to maintain Indigenous livelihoods as it is important to survival and connection to the landscape. Fire management also promotes the growth and easy harvest of medicinal plants. Native plant species like Scaevola parvifolia and wollybutt grass (Eragrostis eriopoda) rely on traditional fire management to survive and are also integral to various traditional medicines used by Indigenous communities (Lama Hyolmo, 2024). Medicinal plants native to the savanna have multitudes of health benefits, including things like anti-inflammatory and phytochemical properties which can be used to treat infectious diseases (Yeshi et al, 2022). These environmental outcomes support Indigenous livelihoods by valuing their sourcing of food and medicinal ingredients by burning the savanna landscape. Other natural resources are also protected and conserved by this organizational model. For example, Russell-Smith (2020, p. 343) states: 37 Soil and water resources – by comparison with no burning or patchy EDS [Early Dry Season] fires, removal of litter cover by LDS [Late Dry Season] fires substantially increase impacts on soil erosion, nutrient loss and water quality, especially in sloping terrain…Prescribed EDS burning thus has a major role in effective management of free-standing water resources, including drinking-water supplies. LDS burns result in killing vegetational root systems producing soil erosion, which ends up in waterways (Dyer, 2001). This doubles the sediment load carried by tributaries which degrades water quality over time (Dyer, 2001). Given the harm that LDS has on natural resources, EDS should be prioritized to support biodiversity goals and Indigenous livelihoods. EDS fires have lower fire intensity than their LDS counterparts meaning that they produce lower levels of greenhouse gas emissions resulting in lower regional and national emissions levels. Contemporary fire management in the Northern Territory has been proven to reduce high intensity wildfires as these fires burn at cooler temperatures and cause less destruction to ecosystems (Evans and Russell-Smith, 2020). This decreased fire intensity results in reductions in ghg emissions that are produced by burning. As stated in ALFA NT’s Annual Report published in 2022, since the start of WALFA Pilot Program this organization has abated about 6,000,000 tons of carbon (ALFA NT, 2022). Reductions in GHG emissions is one AFLA NT’s organizational goals and positive environmental outcomes of this organization. ALFA NT is focused on providing financial support for projects aimed at enhancing the overall health of natural ecosystems. For instance, generated project revenue or “fire money” goes directly into protecting the environment by supporting other environmental projects like weed control (Altman et al., 2020, p. 568). This funding also supports the 38 organization with more fire management equipment and increased staffing to successfully complete future projects (McKemey et al., 2020). Positive environmental outcomes that are associated with ALFA NT are concentrated on supporting the needs of local biodiversity, and combating destruction caused by climate change by addressing ghg emissions, project funding, and natural resource management. 5.2 DETRIMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL OUTCOMES Despite the positive environmental outcomes associated with ALFA NT’s fire management, some argue that this organization is causing environmental destruction. Some of the environmental damage attributed to this organization includes: larger wildfires, unintentional fires, modest environmental benefit, loss of biodiversity, and unpredictability due to climate change. These critiques of ALFA NT oppose many of the positive environmental outcomes associated with this organization. As previously stated, wildfire intensity is believed to decrease under ALFA NT. However, others, like PhD student Jay Evans, believe that ALFA NT is creating larger fires (Evans et al, 2020). During the WALFA Pilot Program, it was noted that while late dry season fires had decreased, the number of fires on the landscape remained the same to the original conditions predating this organization (Evans and Russell-Smith, 2020). These larger fires are more difficult to control than smaller fires and can cause significant damage to property, buildings, the environment, and human lives. 39 Additionally, the intentionality of these burns are often questioned by fire ecologists. Some fire ecology studies show that the fire regime supported by ALFA NT’s efforts may not be specific to the needs of native plant and animal species. One research study explained that: challenges remain with regard to restricting frequent fires in sandstone heath, reducing fire size particularly in structurally homogeneous lowland woodlands, and maintaining longer-unburnt sandstone heath and upland habitats generally (Evans & Russell-Smith, 2020, p. 397). This study notes that fire management practices could be more intentional if the organization was more attentive to the needs of local ecosystems. The requirements of different savanna organisms can only be met if burning is approached thoughtfully to restore ecological balance to this ecosystem. Environmental benefits are often assumed and are not uniformly or thoroughly studied to prove that this organization is creating positive environmental impacts. The adverse effects that burning has on local biodiversity are a recurring theme in critics of this organization. Research conducted by Southern Australian fire ecologists, questions the environmental impacts of ALFA NT, meaning the true impact of this organization’s burning could have little to no beneficial impact on the natural environment (Davies et al., 2023). Similarly, uncertainty and unpredictability surrounding climate change also complicates the environmental impacts that ALFA NT has on native species and the landscape. This added uncertainty makes it difficult to grasp this organization’s real environmental impacts. In the article, “No ordinary company: Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (Northern Territory) Limited” by ALFA NT CEO Jennifer Ansell, Professor Jon Altman, Dean Yibarbuk an ALFA NT Director, highlights the alternative to this fire management system: “The relevant 40 counterfactual question is, what would be the impact of annual wildfires without prescribed burning?” (Altman et al., 2020, p. 565). Navigating the myriad "what if" scenarios advocating for varied fire management approaches is perplexing. Further research is essential to grasp the connection between ALFA NT's environmental impact and how climate change influences these outcomes. Negative environmental outcomes range from loss of biodiversity to insufficient evidence of ALFA NT’s environmental outcomes. Despite the potential negative environmental implications of this model, embodying the seasonality and burning methodology that is central to traditional fire management is more beneficial to the environment than Western scientific fire management. These TFK aspects of ALFA NT’s model are proof that this knowledge combining is producing net positive alternative to SFK. 5.3 SOCIOCULTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE COMBINING: INDIGENOUS INCLUSIVITY Research Question: What are the impacts that this knowledge combining has on the Indigenous communities? The answer to this question lies in how employees relate to fire management and the consequent effect on traditional fire management practices. While ALFA NT’s management model outperforms the alternative environmentally, the sociocultural implications of this model are less clear. These social implications can be understood through analyzing cultural 41 empowerment, cultural manipulation and the level of organizational Indigenous participation in this model. For example, while ALFA NT is Indigenous owned and prides itself on Indigenous inclusivity, stakeholder participation is still questioned by some critics of the organization. On one hand, Indigenous participation is illustrated through shared stakeholder values, knowledge combining, and organizational participatory governance. On the other hand, divisiveness in stakeholder values, power imbalances, contractual relationships between Aboriginal Rangers and fire management, and intertribal conflict are also believed to be outcomes of this organization. Like the environmental outcomes of this model, Indigenous inclusivity within this organization is debated (see Table 3). Table 3: Indigenous Inclusivity and Exclusivity resulting from ALFA NT’s Knowledge Combining 42 For ALFA NT, Indigenous participation ranges from shared stakeholder values to an organizational participatory governance structure. All of these aspects of inclusivity welcome stakeholder collaboration as well as power sharing as means of fostering healthy partnerships and mutual relationships within ALFA NT. As previously stated, membership in ALFA NT is open to Indigenous communities living within ALFA NT’s project areas (Altman et al., 2020). This kind of membership pushes back against potential tribal conflicts that may exist amongst neighborhood Indigenous communities and instead supports Indigenous involvement in this organization. Some of the major positive outcomes tied to this organization include things like: continuing improvement in ranger management of fire; Indigenous Traditional Owners’ support of rangers; increased income and resources generated from savanna burning; effective use of cross-cultural science; involvement of community members, Elders and young people in burning programs and their emotional wellbeing related to Indigenous fire practices; the potential for “right way” burning to restore important bush-tucker populations; rangers’ respectful engagement with Traditional Owners; the community’s respect for the work of the rangers, and community members having the opportunity to undertake burning practices (McKemey et al., 2020, p. 7). These aspects of Indigenous participation in ALFA NT serve to achieve the ultimate goal of supporting inclusive involvement in this organization. This organization maintains the integrity and tradition of Indigenous participation by acknowledging and encouraging the fulfillment of traditional fire management roles among elders, Traditional Owners, and youth. Mission alignment is important to ALFA NT’s stakeholders. This mission alignment is similar to that of Mongolia’s payment for Ecosystem Services model for herding that creates carbon sequestration in soil (Bremer et al., 2023). Mongolia and Australia’s models 43 both prioritize local goals and local knowledge systems through integrating relationality, environmental stewardship, reciprocity, and local governance into their systems (Bremer et al., 2023). This mission alignment ensures that all organizational stakeholders are united on the purpose and aims of the organization. Knowledge combining is another important part of ALFA NT’s methodology and identity as an organization. The cross-cultural combination of science and traditional fire knowledge has allowed ALFA NT to create a new system of fire management that is able to expand operations while honoring traditional fire management. One Indigenous member of ALFA NT explained that: “Fire management in our ranger program is very important because fire brings back life” (McKemey et al, 2020, p. 6). Knowledge combining establishes a connection between preserving traditional fire knowledge and responsibly managing the landscape. 5.4 INDIGENOUS EXCLUSIVITY AND CONFLICT Exclusivity and stakeholder conflict may counteract the participatory nature of this organization. These consequences are represented through divisive stakeholder values, power imbalances, contractual relationships with fire management, and intertribal conflict. Tensions arise between ALFA NT employees and Indigenous communities due to disagreements over the organization's fire management practices, which are seen as not respecting Indigenous cultural connections to traditional fire management. One anecdote 44 that illustrates these tensions illustrates the choice that Aboriginal Rangers must make to fulfill the obligation of their jobs, while serving the wishes of their communities: During a meeting in May 2009, the oldest woman in the ranger group suggested: ‘‘We have to talk to the Bushfire Council [and] maybe not burn next year,’’ referring here to Bushfires NT….Her recommendation provoked the following reaction from one of the male rangers: ‘‘If we don’t burn, we won’t get money for this fire project.’’ She replied: ‘‘You’re worried about money; I’m worried for the country” (Fache and Moizo, 2015, p. 175). Aboriginal Rangers are placed in a ‘double bind’ to work so they can feed their families, while also not losing their connection to culture and traditional fire management. These tensions can lead to power imbalances and intertribal conflicts. These dynamics reflect colonialist attitudes aimed at suppressing Indigenous communities and their cultures. These organizational power imbalances also influence the decisions made by ALFA NT. As stated in the article, “Converging old and new carbon frontiers in northern Australia,” by Professor Timothy Neale and colleagues, savanna burning organizations owned by Indigenous communities, such as ALFA NT, aim to disengage from partnerships with gas companies and neighboring fossil fuel industries, but struggle to do so because of the demands of the carbon market (Neale et al., 2023). Similarly, Neale argues that there is an administrative class of “white advisors” who counsel Indigenous communities on how to fulfill their rights to sovereignty that should be inherent within cross-cultural organizations like ALFA NT (Neale, 2023, p. 314-315). These responses suggest that ALFA NT's stakeholder power hierarchy is distorted, with non-Indigenous parties and the carbon market holding more influence than Indigenous participation in the organization. The Carbon credit market demands also place pressure on ALFA NT to meet the expectations of their corporate partners, the Australian government, and the market. There is 45 concern about securing enough funding to maintain this organization’s operations. For instance, when ACCUs are sold to the Emissions Reduction Fund they are purchased based on a reverse auction, meaning that organizations like ALFA NT must lower the price of their carbon credits so they can be sold (Altman et al, 2020). This sale price of ACCUs is not reflective of the labor, time, and travel that goes into creating these carbon credits through burning operations (Altman et al, 2020). This shaky funding source is paired with that of the Australian government’s unpredictable project funding for ALFA NT that is based on the perceived success of ALFA NT (Cattelino, 2010; Neale, 2023). On top of all of this, there are not any carbon abatement agreements or governmental policies that protect the distribution capacity of organizations like ALFA NT (Croker et al, 2023). All of these challenges that ALFA NT faces demonstrate the power that the Australian government and the ACCU market have over this organization. Organizational Indigenous participation is also believed to be limited in the use of various burning equipment, that is not used in authentic Indigenous traditional burning settings. For instance, Aboriginal Rangers are hesitant to use the bombardier, or aerial incendiary equipment, when conducting burns (Fache and Moizo, 2015). This equipment is believed to be unsafe by Indigenous communities and has become the responsibility of Non- Indigenous members of the organization to avoid creating intertribal tensions through its use (Fache and Moizo, 2015). Given the scale of ALFA NT’s operations, the bombardier may be required to continue operating effectively and efficiently. The level of Indigenous participation in ALFA NT is more robust than that of other parts of the world in which Indigenous communities and Indigenous fire practitioners are 46 still left out of wildfire management. At the same time, organizational power imbalances and intertribal conflict may limit the level of Indigenous participation in this organization. 5.5 CULTURAL EMPOWERMENT Another important sociocultural implication of knowledge combining in this organization is how it impacts Indigenous communities’ culture. There are also questions about the impacts that this knowledge combining has on Indigenous culture. Some perspectives view this system as manipulating or appropriating the Indigenous relationship with fire. Other perspectives believe that knowledge fusion in this organization is a form of cultural empowerment for Indigenous groups. Overall, this questions whether this system is being appropriated by science and settler fire management in a way that decontextualizes its cultural importance to Indigenous communities. Figure 7: Cultural Implications of Knowledge Combining in ALFA NT 47 Indigenous cultural empowerment is multifaceted as it addresses the cultural, environmental, and social needs of Indigenous communities. For example, in the article "Indigenous Knowledge and Seasonal Calendar Inform Adaptive Savanna Burning in Northern Australia," Australian PhD student, Michelle McKemey and colleagues stated that ALFA NT aims to achieve “healthy fire management on their country, see fewer wildfires, protect biodiversity and culturally important sites, maintain and transfer knowledge, as well as create a carbon abatement” (McKemey et al., 2020, p. 3). Biodiversity conservation, knowledge sharing, combating climate change, and honoring sacred cultural sites are all a part of empowering Indigenous culture. Traditional Indigenous knowledge sharing also supports cultural empowerment. The Yugul Mangi tribe, which participates in ALFA NT, shares their Traditional Ecological Knowledge of seasonal calendars in relation to burning with others to explain their perspective and methodology surrounding fire management (McKemey et al., 2020).This act of knowledge sharing can produce a greater acceptance and reinstatement of Indigenous knowledge. Sharing ways to “Care for country” by stewarding the environment while supporting Indigenous culture is also a form of cultural empowerment. Reinstating traditional Indigenous fire knowledge can take the form of policy changes that permit traditional fire management, along with integrating traditional approaches into contemporary fire projects. The funding of ALFA NT’s burning operations and traditional fire management helps reinstate traditional fire on the landscapes through funding and revenue generation. Regulation and investment that support the reinstatement of traditional fire management further empower the Indigenous communities involved in ALFA NT. Cultural 48 empowerment takes many different forms within this organization, but ultimately serves the needs of local Indigenous communities and the environment. 5.6 CULTURAL MANIPULATION Cultural manipulation refers to the taking or adoption of culture that is belongs to others resulting in the erasure or appropriation of Indigenous traditional fire knowledge. Altering the meaning of traditional fire knowledge, burning epistemology disagreements, and the loss of traditional fire knowledge are some examples of cultural manipulation within ALFA NT. For example, some view this organization as “cherry picking” various parts of traditional fire management to the extent of changing or manipulating traditional practices. Failing to consider the cultural significances of fire management, like reciprocity, ceremony, mysticism, and sacred sites are examples of this type of decontextualization (Fache and Moizo, 2015). Additionally, the combining of Western scientific fire knowledge with traditional fire knowledge is upsetting to some as it has the potential of decontextualizing certain aspect of traditional fire management during this process. Because of this knowledge combining process, ALFA NT’s traditional fire management looks different than it did thousands of years ago because of changes in burning methodology and fire practices. Those who view this transformation as being detrimental to knowledge combining believe that there is “too much” “wrong way” burning taking that is: detrimental impacts on bush tucker; lack of opportunity for community members to burn; mis-managed fire leading to wildfire; lack of education for 49 young people, and that community members did not respect the work of the rangers (McKemey et al., 2020, p. 7). This quote illustrates how ALFA NT’s ways of burning can sever relationships between members of tribal communities and Aboriginal Rangers. Because of this organization’s burning methodology is not approved by all stakeholders. These concerns of influence from sources outside of Indigenous communities and their potential assimilating power leading to a loss of generational knowledge sharing has detrimental impacts on Indigenous communities in Australia. There is a lack of consensus surrounding the sociocultural implications of ALFA NT’s knowledge combining. More feedback from ALFA NT employees and neighboring Indigenous communities is needed to understand the implications that this model has on their livelihoods and culture. Because of this there is also need for more research about the impact the Western scientific fire knowledge has on Traditional Fire Knowledge within this knowledge combining system. 50 6. CONCLUSIONS, UNCERTAINTY, AND THE FUTURE OF FIRE MANAGEMENT Since its founding, the Arnhem Land Fire Abatement non-profit has reshaped the Northern Territory’s fire regime to be more conducive to an alternative fire management approach that fuses traditional fire knowledge with Western scientific fire knowledge depicted in its burning methodology and Indigenous leadership. There is significant uncertainty baked into this organization’s knowledge combining process and its impacts on Indigenous communities. At the same time, this organization has advanced in restoring the land by reintroducing traditional fire management practices to areas still recovering from the environmental toll of 20th-century land exploitation and development. However, more research is needed to understand whether traditional fire management is being enhanced by Western scientific fire management to benefit the environment. This question requires input from Indigenous communities and Indigenous voices to understand how this model influences the health of the natural environment. These findings were guided by my three research questions: how are traditional fire knowledge and Western scientific fire knowledge being combined in this organization? What are the impacts that this knowledge combining has on the environment? What are the impacts that this knowledge combining has on Indigenous communities? One question that has yet to be fully addressed is, why does this research matter and what value does it provide to the rest of the world? The major takeaways of this project pertain to ALFA NT’s process of knowledge combining and its environmental and sociocultural implications. One takeaway is that ALFA NT’s knowledge combining is evident in its burning methodology and leadership. An 51 implication of this model is that traditional fire knowledge enhances scientific fire knowledge by producing environmental benefits. Another implication of this model is that Western scientific fire knowledge may or may not enhance traditional fire knowledge based on organizational social implications that require further research. Moving forward, research should elevate Indigenous voices who can speak to their own experiences of interacting with ALFA NT. ALFA NT's pioneering fire management paradigm not only sets a precedent for the future but also resonates internationally, with nations like Botswana eagerly embracing its principles. In 2019, several Aboriginal Rangers were sent to Maun, Botswana to teach about the differences between Western scientific fire management and traditional fire management (Johnston, 2020). Now Botswana is experimenting with pilot sites for burning, while also trying to integrate local Indigenous groups into this national fire management system (Johnston, 2020). Other countries in Africa and South America are also following suit by exploring the potential of alternative fire management practices. Similar to the auditing done in my project, future fire management models that are premised on combining fire knowledge should consider doing similar audits to evaluate the environmental and sociocultural implications of their organizations. Considering knowledge fusion as an ongoing process enables future fire management models to adopt the most effective elements of ALFA NT's model within their specific circumstances. Overall, ALFA NT defies the norms of customary fire management through fire knowledge combining and by fusing two fire management systems that have never been combined before. This model pushes against exclusivity, whiteness, and knowledge hierarchies that have plagued Australia’s history of wildfire management. While ALFA NT 52 has its imperfections, this organization promotes a future where diverse types of fire knowledge are embraced, challenging current norms in climate adaptation strategies and reshaping our relationship with fire. ALFA NT’s organizational journey illuminates the path towards a harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature, echoing far beyond the bounds of the Northern Territory. 53 REFERENCES ALFA NT | Arnhem Land Fire Abatement Northern Territory. (n.d.). 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