AD HOC REPORT Working conditions Overview of new forms of employment 2018 update Produced for the 17th EU-Japan Symposium ‘The future of work – new forms of employment’ 4 July 2018 Overview of new forms of employment 2018 update European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions When citing this report, please use the following wording: Eurofound (2018), Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Authors: Irene Mandl and Isabella Biletta Research manager: Irene Mandl Eurofound project: New forms of employment (0474) Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union Print: ISBN: 978-92-897-1722-9 doi:10.2806/03287 TJ-03-18-061-EN-C PDF: ISBN: 978-92-897-1723-6 doi:10.2806/09266 TJ-03-18-061-EN-N This report and any associated materials are available online at http://eurofound.link/ef18050 © European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2018 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the Eurofound copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. Cover image © Eurofound 2018, Peter Cernoch The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) is a tripartite European Union Agency, whose role is to provide knowledge in the area of social, employment and work-related policies. Eurofound was established in 1975 by Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1365/75 to contribute to the planning and design of better living and working conditions in Europe. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions Telephone: (+353 1) 204 31 00 Email: information@eurofound.europa.eu Web: www.eurofound.europa.eu Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union. Freephone number*: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 *Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed. Contents Introduction 1 Strategic employee sharing 3 Job sharing 5 Interim management 7 Casual work 8 ICT-based mobile work 11 Voucher-based work 13 Portfolio work 14 Platform work 15 Collaborative self-employment 17 Conclusions and policy pointers 18 References 23 iii Country codes EU28 AT Austria FI Finland NL Netherlands BE Belgium FR France PL Poland BG Bulgaria HR Croatia PT Portugal CY Cyprus HU Hungary RO Romania CZ Czech Republic IE Ireland SE Sweden DE Germany IT Italy SI Slovenia DK Denmark LU Luxembourg SK Slovakia EE Estonia LT Lithuania UK United Kingdom EL Greece LV Latvia ES Spain MT Malta iv Introduction Defining ‘new forms of £ provision of work on a discontinuous/intermittent basis or for very limited periods of time rather than employment’ on a continuous or regular basis (‘standard’ part- Societal and economic developments, such as the need time or concepts such as seasonal work were not for increased flexibility by both employers and workers, considered ‘new’, unless other features that made the greater use of advanced information and the employment relevant for this project applied) communications technology (ICT) and the greater £ networking and cooperation arrangements importance of particular business activities and between the self-employed – especially freelancers occupations are resulting in the emergence of new – going beyond ‘standard’ relationships along the forms of employment. supply chain, sharing premises or traditional conducting of project work However, the understanding of what ‘new forms of employment’ means differs between Member States. In addition, the relevant forms of employment may (but What is ‘new’ in one country may be well-established in need not necessarily) have: another or may not exist in a third. In its research on £ a place of work other than the premises of the new forms of employment, Eurofound (2015) aimed to employer (in this context, traditional teleworking map emerging labour market trends by adopting an was not considered – only ‘more mobile’ work approach based on a national perspective, taking into relationships) account those forms of employment that are £ strong and widespread support of ICT, where this considered ‘new’ in the national context, irrespective of technology changes the nature of work relations or their status in other countries. patterns Nevertheless, in order to ensure some level of The project considered forms of employment based on comparability of the findings, a working definition for all kinds of contract. Similarly, the project included both ‘new forms of employment’ has been established, with forms of employment that are applied in all employment in one or more of the following categories sectors/occupations and those that are limited to being considered: particular sectors/occupations, as presented in Figure 1. £ relationships between employers and employees that are different from the established 1:1 employment relationships (temporary agency work was not considered ‘new’ for the purpose of this project) Figure 1: Understanding of ‘new forms of employment’ in the project Non-conventional workplace (e.g. ‘around’, own-office, etc.) Support of ICT (e.g. mobile phone, iPad, etc.) Employment relationship Work patterns £ 1:n £ Discontinuity Networking among n:1 £ Intermittent self-employed£ £ n:n £ Non-conventional fixed term Irrespective of legal basis, collective agreement, type of contract Irrespective of sector and occupation Source: Eurofound 1 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update For the purposes of this project, Eurofound focused on New forms of employment in forms of employment that have either emerged since around 2000, or that existed previously but have since Europe – an overview become more prevalent. In line with the above working definition, the project This report constitutes an overview and update of the identified nine broad new forms of employment findings of the Eurofound report New forms of (Figure 2). These may be new models of employment employment (Eurofound, 2015). These findings have relationship between employer/employee, or been partly updated with further research that client/worker; alternatively, they may be new patterns Eurofound has since conducted on this topic of work (how the work is conducted). Sometimes, these (Eurofound, 2016; Eurofound and the International two are interlinked. At the same time, the forms of Labour Office, 2017) or is conducting at the time of employment may be differentiated by whether they writing (in July 2018, this refers to studies on casual involve employees or self-employed work and platform work planned for publication in workers/freelancers (alternatively, they may apply to 2018–2019). both groups of workers). It must be mentioned that overlaps between these nine types are possible: an individual employment situation can fall into more than one category. Figure 2: New forms of employment identified Employees Self-employed Employment relationship Employee sharing Voucher-based Job sharing work Interim management Portfolio work Platform work ICT based Collaborative Casual work mobile work self-employment Work pattern Source: Eurofound 2 Strategic employee sharing General characteristics Mutual trust: Trust is essential – both among employers and between the employers, workers and the group Strategic employee sharing is a form of cooperative management (Delalande and Buannic, 2006). human resource (HR) management. The management of resources goes beyond a single organisation Flexibility and adaptability of the workforce: The (Europäisches Ressourcenzentrum der workforce should be able to work autonomously on the Arbeitgeberzusammenschlüsse, 2008; Wölfing et al, different assignments. 2007; Osthoff et al, 2011; Baumfeld, 2012; Baumfeld and The group becomes the legal employer of the shared Fischer, 2012). Several employers form a ‘group’ that workers, and the participating companies are hires one or more workers to be sent on individual work responsible for the work organisation (such as health assignments to participating companies. The structure and safety measures). The group is responsible for a is similar to temporary agency work, with the difference range of functions: being that the workers are regularly rotated exclusively £ assessing cross-company human resource needs among the participating employers, and the group does not aim to make a profit out of the cross-company £ HR management (such as matching supply and HR management. Furthermore, the participating demand of human resources in terms of time, employers take on joint and several liability and extent and qualifications) responsibility towards the workers rather than just £ hiring and concluding the employment contract being clients of the employers’ group. The employment £ fulfilling all administrative and social obligations of risk is shared among the member companies the employment contract (following the principle of solidarity and mutuality) £ invoicing the participating companies while the workers deal with only one single employer. £ induction and training of workers The following preconditions have been identified as essential for the sustainable implementation of Furthermore, the group management (in practice, in strategic employee sharing (Eurofound, 2016). close cooperation with the participating companies) defines the terms and conditions of the employee Public framework conditions: Awareness among public sharing arrangement, including codes of conduct, and actors of this employment model is required, as is active rights and duties of companies and workers. This support for its establishment and a legal framework includes issues related to cconfidentiality, discretion, that allows for the rapid and straightforward mutual consultation, and just and equal treatment of establishment of strategic employee sharing. the shared workers; it also regulates situations such as Resource centres: Umbrella organisations are the entry of new companies into the group or the necessary to familiarise policymakers, employers and transition of a shared worker into the core workforce of employees with the employment model, and to assist in one of the participating firms. the establishing and running of employer groups. In practice, a mix of sectors in a strategic employee Group management: Skilled and trusted management sharing model makes sense in order to balance of the employer group is required. fluctuations of human resource needs in the participating firms. Demand for labour: For such schemes to work effectively, there must be sufficient demand for labour While strategic employee sharing is not restricted to a in the participating companies: it must recur regularly, particular size of company, in practice it can have be anticipated and reach a critical mass; and it must be specific advantages for small and medium-sized possible to combine demands for labour by the enterprises (SMEs): it enables them to recruit a participating companies, in terms of timing and content professional on a stable and long-term basis, which they (implying commonality in skills/occupations), into joint would not be able to do on their own. full-time employment. In general, strategic employee sharing can be applied for any occupation, as long as there is sufficient labour demand in the region. 3 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update Implications for working Implications for the labour conditions market Strategic employee sharing contributes to job stability Strategic employee sharing provides companies with by creating permanent full-time jobs, rather than short- human resources that they would otherwise be unable term and part-time employment. Even when the worker to access, or only at a higher price (Wölfing et al, 2007; is operating in different companies, it is easier for them Antoine and Rorive, 2006). This is particularly beneficial to negotiate on working conditions as they are for SMEs, since administrative and labour costs are employed by a single employer (the ‘group’). Having a reduced. The participating companies also benefit from single employer increases transparency about the cross-company work experience of the shared responsibility and facilitates aligning work assignments worker, which may result in efficiency and productivity in different firms (Antoine and Rorive, 2006; Vötsch and gains, and there is some indication that employee Titz, 2011; Eurofound, 2016). sharing fosters regional cooperation in other business areas, thereby benefitting local economic development. The legal basis, collective agreements and codes of conduct ensure equal treatment of shared workers and The practice of employee sharing contributes to labour the core staff of the company they are working in as market stability in the region by providing permanent regards working conditions and social protection. full-time jobs that otherwise would be more precarious or would result in work intensification for the core staff Employee sharing can also contribute to the of the firms (Europäisches Ressourcenzentrum der development of workers’ skills. Workers benefit by Arbeitgeberzusammenschlüsse, 2008; Delalande and gaining experience due to the variety of jobs they Buannic, 2006). Furthermore, employee sharing can perform and the (on-the-job) training they may receive contribute to better working conditions in the region across the companies (Antoine and Rorive, 2006; due to employers’ multilateral influence on each other Hertwig and Kirsch, 2013; Vötsch and Titz, 2011; and the implicit obligation of all employers to provide Eurofound, 2016). It must be noted, however, that the similar working conditions in order to remain attractive provision of formal training depends on the size of the within the group; this can make a region more attractive employee sharing model; it is only feasible if a certain for skilled workers. Working in different companies critical mass of workers is achieved. could also result in workers’ gaining a broader range of Due to the rotating character of work placements, there different competencies in diversified tasks and work is some danger that shared workers are less well- organisations – hence, a regional upskilling. This, in embedded in the organisational structures and turn, might attract new companies, creating additional communication flows in the participating companies; jobs. As a consequence, strategic employee sharing has this could result in poorer working relations with the potential to contribute to regional revitalisation. management and coworkers, and less representation. At the same time, some workers prefer a traditional The specialist staff in a strategic employee sharing employment relationship. This might lead to arrangement may also suffer from professional competition among employees – and disappointment isolation, as within the participating companies they and demotivation when the desired permanent post is have limited or no possibilities for peer exchange. not achieved (Näppilä and Järvensivu, 2009); it may also Furthermore, career development in terms of result in competition among the regional companies to hierarchical progress is limited. attract (skilled) labour. In a strategic employee sharing arrangement, workers Employee sharing can contribute to labour market are required to show a similar, high level of flexibility integration, since joint responsibility may reduce and adaptability in each of their different work companies’ reluctance to recruit workers from environments. This may be exciting for some, but it may disadvantaged groups, when demand is unstable or in be stressful for others, who experience work economically challenging times. intensification due to the combination of different part-time jobs. 4 Job sharing General characteristics Implications for working Job sharing refers to employment relationships in conditions which one employer hires (normally) two workers to Job sharing provides workers with a good level of jointly fill a single full-time position. It is a form of part- flexibility, allowing them to work part-time and flexibly time work that ensures that shared jobs are take turns with each other. It is seen as a way to permanently staffed. improve the status and career prospects of part-time While the legislation or collective agreements available workers, create better work–life balance, and offer in some countries provide provisions regarding rights flexibility to employers (Branine, 2003; Guglielmo, 2008). and duties of employers and employees in job sharing As regards social protection, job sharers are generally situations, they do not contain any guidelines regarding entitled to the same benefits as any part-time workers. the design and implementation of this form of In Hungary, when a job sharing employment situation employment. Hence, it is up to the employer and comes to an end, legislation allows for notice periods employees to arrange it among themselves. This and severance payments that are the same as for other includes, for example, the choice of contract employment contracts. Similarly, in Slovakia, if a job (permanent versus fixed-term), the number of working sharing arrangement ends, regulations entitle the hours and the work organisation (within general legal or worker to be assigned to work equivalent to the full collectively agreed frameworks). working time and job description as they were assigned Job sharing is not suitable for all types of jobs or in the job sharing arrangement. positions. For this form of employment to work, it is As regards training, evidence from the case studies vital that tasks can be divided up, either in terms of time conducted in the framework of Eurofound (2015) or the level of skills required. Nevertheless, across suggests that job sharers have the same access to countries the application of job sharing across sectors training as any other core worker. In addition, job and occupations varies, indicating that it could be used sharing provides opportunities for learning and in a wide spectrum of labour market situations. For exchange due to the shared completion of the tasks example, in the Czech Republic and the UK, job sharing inherent in the job. is often used for generalist positions (Nekolová, 2010; Wheatley, 2013). In contrast, Polish data show that a However, there are concerns regarding the loss of high share of job sharers are specialists (Sadowska- benefits associated with full-time employment, conflicts Snarska, 2006). Anecdotal evidence points towards this between job sharers, and lack of control over the nature form of employment as being attractive for women with and outcomes of work (Branine, 1998, 2003, 2004). dependent children (Eurofound, 2015; Wheatley, 2013). Moreover, if poorly implemented, job sharing can result Information from the Czech Republic, Ireland, Poland in increased work intensity, the need to work overtime and Slovenia indicates the use of job sharing in the and work-related stress (for example, if there is a lack of public sector, while in Slovakia the Act on Civil Service adequate ‘fit’ of job sharers), which can sometimes appears to exclude it for civil servants. result in job sharers being given less responsibility Ensuring an extensive and continuous communication (McDonald et al, 2009; Wheatley, 2013). Stress related to flow is important for a successful and efficient job job sharing can also create mental health issues – for sharing arrangement (Dubourg et al, 2006). Irrespective example, if job sharers do not succeed in completing of the design of the individual job sharing arrangement, the work assigned to them, and their job sharing this type of work always includes some level of self- partner is required to complete it for them. This might organisation among the job sharers in order to hand result in a situation in which they feel responsible for over tasks. Some overlap in the hours job sharers are imposing additional work on their colleagues, or they present is recommended to facilitate a smooth overburden themselves with trying to catch up. workflow. Job sharing can also result in an increased overhead on workers in terms of handing over the tasks and organising the sharing of activities; this includes the requirement to substitute for each other, which might interfere with other (private) obligations. 5 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update Implications for the labour Wheatly (2013) proposes job sharing as one way of tackling the present labour market challenges of youth market unemployment and ageing working populations. Job The implications of job sharing for the labour market sharing, used as a mentoring scheme, could slow the relate to integration and job retention rather than to job exit of older workers from the labour market and creation. Job sharing has the potential to increase the constitute a form of apprenticeship for young workers. employment of disadvantaged groups in the labour Daniels (2011) suggests that job sharing benefits the market (notably mothers returning from maternity business continuity, boosts employee engagement and leave, people with care responsibilities, older workers, enhances productivity (through two people exchanging disabled or sick people unable to work full-time, or ideas and information regarding the job). people engaged in education activities); at the same time, job sharing can result in lower costs for employers than those resulting from standard part-time jobs (for example, only one set of technical equipment or one workplace has to be provided). 6 Interim management General characteristics variable (Jas, 2013). There may also be some inherent risk of professional isolation as interim managers have a Interim management is a form of employment in which unique position in the receiving company. In general, to a company hires a highly specialised expert for a compensate for the job insecurity, an interim management temporary duration and with a specific purpose, for contract carries a salary premium compared with that example to solve a specific management or technical of employed managers (Inkson et al, 2001). challenge, or to assist in economically difficult times. The specific employment model can follow different Due to their specific role in the receiving company, concepts: the interim manager can become employee of interim managers can make decisions in a less the receiving company, work for it as a contractor on restricted way than permanent staff, and often enjoy the basis of business law, or there might be a third party flexibility as regards the time and place of working involved, which (similar to a temporary work agency) (Inkson et al, 2001). However, this flexibility sometimes employs the interim manager and assigns them to the adds a negative aspect to their working life – for receiving company. The choice of model influences both example, if they have to work away from home and employers’ and workers’ roles, rights and duties as well travel a lot, especially if combined with a continuous as the workers’ level of social protection. pressure to perform (Pollit, 2008). Interim management is considered to be a flexible The career development of interim managers tends to option without any long-term commitment; an be entirely their responsibility (Inkson et al, 2001). Even enterprise can use it to respond to a need for a if no specific training is provided, upskilling (technical, heterogeneous workforce that can provide solutions self-management and communication skills), based on its expertise and for a limited/fixed period reinforcement of previous knowledge, familiarisation (Bruns and Kabst, 2005; Inkson et al, 2001; Isidor et al, with a new industry and being innovative in terms of 2014; Russam GMS, 2012). This provision of external formulating new managerial approaches are reported leadership staff, with specific appointed managerial as potential benefits of interim managerial jobs (Inkson tasks, is different from the provision of consultancy et al, 2001), hence fostering employability. management services, since an interim manager has some authority to instruct (based on the appointed Implications for the labour tasks) and is subject to (limited) instructions (Bruns and Kabst, 2005). Hence, compared with external market consultants, interim managers are to some degree The high level of qualifications and expertise that integrated into the workforce of the receiving company, interim managers bring are judged as enhancing although not usually to the same extent as a ‘real knowledge among core staff of the company, even manager’ would be. where the assignment is temporary. The presence of an Interim management fills a very specific segment of the interim manager encourages more dynamism and labour market and hence is not a widespread innovation, and might also influence company culture phenomenon. and work patterns. Bruns and Kabst (2005) argue that interim management is a possible response to Interim managers tend to be in their 40s or 50s (Russam companies’ limited investment in human resources GMS, 2012), since their specific tasks require a high level (training activities and human resources planning). of skills, expertise and experience, particularly in Hence, interim management can be assumed to general or crisis management. Experts judge that positively contribute to the competitiveness, interim management is useful for large businesses, and sustainability or even growth of the company which, in that it can bring economic advantage to SMEs, turn, has positive effects on the labour market. especially in the case of structural problems. Expert assessment of interim management from the UK sees this form of employment as being more cost Implications for working effective than hiring consultants, since training costs, conditions employee benefits and career development initiatives are not supported (as they are in standard Interim managers usually supervise permanent staff employment). At the same time, some of the experts and need to adapt rapidly and effectively to a new interviewed for this project do not see the possibility of organisational culture. Given the potential psychosocial interim management crowding out other forms of risks at work (including stress and the lack of long-term employment due to its specificities (short-term job security), in some cases the short-term character of contracts, and requirement for highly skilled personnel). the employment seems to be an important alleviating 7 Casual work General characteristics on specific features, trying to reduce misuses of existing employment relationships. Casual work refers to a type of work where employment is neither stable nor continuous. The European Regulatory frameworks mainly aim at specifying the Parliament (2000) defines casual work as ‘work which is characteristics of casual work, delimiting some key irregular or intermittent with no expectation of aspects such as the population of workers targeted, continuous employment’. sectors covered, duration of the employment relationship, criteria for social protection coverage, and The activation of casual workers depends on minimum remuneration. For instance, France created a fluctuations in the employers’ workload; the employer specific fixed-term contract, the Contrat à Durée is not obliged to regularly provide workers with work, Déterminée d’Usage (CDDU), as an exception to the but has the flexibility of calling them in on demand. standard one, to be used in sectors particularly Two main types of casual work have been identified in characterised by peaks in activity and short duration of various European Member States (Eurofound, 2015). tasks, such as entertainment. The German ‘mini’ and While several Member States specifically regulate casual ‘midi’ jobs contracts also target a specific population, employment, different types may coexist in a single defining a wage threshold that allows employees not to country. pay revenue taxes and social contributions, while still benefiting from some aspects of social protection. Intermittent work Even before the 2008 economic crisis – and certainly In intermittent work, employers approach workers on a since – flexible employment relationships have been regular or irregular basis to conduct a specific task, presented as favouring employment and reducing often related to an individual project or seasonally unemployment; and indeed, casual work has been used occurring jobs. The employment is then characterised by policymakers as a way to increase job growth. by a fixed-term period. This can either refer to fulfilling Casual work is used by managers as a flexible form of the job or to a certain number of working days (see in employment to quickly assign workers to a task that Eurofound, 2015 for information on regulatory arises at short notice. To ensure a rapid response, variations across Belgium, France, Hungary, Romania, employers often use a pool of casual workers, either Slovenia and Slovakia). administered by themselves or through intermediaries. On-call work Nevertheless, recruitment to create such pools is generally done in the same way as any other On-call work describes an arrangement where a recruitment process – based on job advertisements in continuous employment relationship is maintained newspapers, with the public employment service, between an employer and an employee, but the through social media or word of the mouth, and in most employer does not continuously provide work for the cases using predefined selection criteria. employee. Rather, the employer has the option of calling the employee in on demand. There are The period of time between a worker being requested employment contracts that indicate the minimum and and the start of actual work varies with company maximum number of working hours as well as practices and human resource needs. There are employment contracts such as zero-hours contracts examples of employers ordering casual workers from whereby no minimum number of working hours is set. about four weeks beforehand to only one hour in This means that the employer is not obliged to ever call advance. The results of a UK survey showed that around in the worker. (See Eurofound, 2015 for information on 30% of organisations using zero-hours contracts have a national regulations regarding on-call work in Ireland, policy on the notice period for asking staff to come into Italy, Netherlands, Sweden and the UK.) work. However, 40% do not have a policy and the remainder do not know if they have one. Almost half of the zero-hours workers said they receive no notice or Regulation of casual work may even find out at the start of their shift that the work When considering regulation on casual work across is cancelled (CIPD, 2013). several EU Member States, differences are particularly Casual employment is mainly used in specific sectors, visible in the scope of the regulation. characterised by seasonal activities and variable Few countries have established casual work as a new demand such as hospitality and homecare (IFAU, 2001; specific employment relation/contract; rather, they ISTAT, 2010; Pennycook et al, 2013). It is also generally have mainly sought to grant legal status to previously associated with low-paying sectors like retail and informal employment relationships (Italy); others focus catering (Irish Times, 2013; Pennycook et al, 2013; 8 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update De Graaf-Zijl, 2012) and, in many EU countries, is mainly Casual workers experience restriction in employment concentrated in lower-skilled occupations (ISTAT, 2010; rights and working conditions. First of all, casual Eurofound, 2010; Brinkley, 2013). Regulations regarding workers are treated as employees under labour law in casual work regulations have largely been drafted to some Member States (for example, France and the address the needs of specific sectors, reinforcing the Netherlands), while in other Member States they are not concentration of this form of employment in those (for example, Poland and Croatia). They may also be sectors. granted fewer or more limited employment rights depending on the type of contract and the type of work For workers, the benefits of flexibility are less involved (for example, in the Czech Republic). straightforward. Casual workers tend to be young, less educated and predominantly women (IFAU, 2001; In the UK, zero-hours contracts are characterised by less Mandrone and Radicchia, 2010; De Graaf-Zijl, 2012; clearly defined employment rights, less income security Flexbarometer.nl, 2014; Pennycook et al, 2013). For and a worse work–life balance, since calls to come in to instance, in Germany, two-thirds of those working in work can come at short notice, resulting in irregular mini-jobs are women; indeed, for female workers, working hours. There is evidence that workers on zero- casual work may be the only opportunity for hours contracts are more likely to find themselves in reintegration into the labour market following a career low-paid jobs (Pennycook et al, 2013; break. Konjunkturinstitutet, 2005). At the same time, however, there is some anecdotal case study evidence pointing One positive motivation for casual employment is the towards good income levels for casual workers due to a employee’s wish or need to reconcile working life and combination of beneficial tax treatment and employers’ private life. This category would include workers with commitment to fair wages. childcare or other types of caring responsibilities. Students also widely use casual work in order to It has been observed that Swedish on-call contract support themselves financially while studying, as well workers receive less training and have less influence on as to gain experience of a particular job or sector. their work duties (IFAU, 2001). One of the casual Nevertheless, there are some concerns regarding the workers interviewed for Eurofound (2015) also reasons for choosing casual work, as in most countries commented that (in her opinion) learning on the job the lack of permanent or more standard form of takes longer due to unstable and fragmented work contracts remains the main reason advanced by patterns. individuals for working on such a contractual basis. Casual workers are not always covered by the public Therefore the ‘choice’ is not voluntary – rather, it is social insurance system or by public health insurance more the result of an absence of alternatives. services and do not qualify as recipients of Furthermore, when being requested to work, most unemployment benefits. However, there are examples casual workers theoretically have the possibility to of legislation providing some protection and access to decline the job offer. However, in several case studies basic entitlements for casual workers. conducted in the framework of Eurofound (2015), it is Work (and hence related income and often also social mentioned that repeated refusals can result in a lower protection) is provided to casual workers only on chance of the worker being asked to come to work in occasion and probably also for limited duration. This future. In the same UK survey, 17% of zero-hours results in little job security, unpredictable and irregular workers say that they are sometimes penalised for not working hours, low wages, limited benefits and less job accepting offers of work and 3% say they are always satisfaction (ILO, 2004; Layte et al, 2008; FNV, 2011). penalised if they turn down offered work (CIPD, 2013). Highly flexible employment relationships are correlated with negative impacts on health and well-being. Implications for working Aronsson et al (2005) found that on-call work was conditions associated with symptoms of ill health such as stomach, back and neck complaints, headaches, tiredness and In general, casual work results in a high level of listlessness. However, several of the regulations flexibility for employers and in low levels of security for analysed oblige the employer to consider the same the workers. Overall, research evidence points to health and safety issues for casual workers as for increased precariousness of casual work contracts, and permanent employees. less favourable working conditions and lower wages than in regular and permanent employment. These While casual work can also create flexibility for the negative circumstances also point to the issue of worker and result in enhanced opportunities for representation. combining work with, for example, care responsibilities 9 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update or education, insecurity regarding the next work Flexibility has been considered as ‘good’ for economies, assignment is reported to cause mental stress. as in Germany and the UK, and for specific worker Furthermore, the fact that work is unpredictable can in groups (especially women with caring responsibilities or many cases cause difficulties in combining work and students) who may otherwise have difficulty accessing private life. Casual workers are eager to make as much the labour market. Nevertheless, while greater flexibility income as possible; in addition, they seek to avoid has been presented as an opportunity for increasing getting a reputation for refusing job offers, which carries employment for all, criticisms have been advanced the risk that employers will not call them in future. (especially from trade union organisations) regarding Hence, they tend to accept all work assignments offered the ‘substitution effect’ of flexible vis-à-vis standard to them. They may do so even if it results in their employment. Casual work contracts are devised to help needing to cancel personal plans. Models in which an particular categories of workers (for example, younger indefinite number of casual jobs (or casual work with people or displaced workers) enter the labour market standard employment) can be combined can result in a and gain some valuable work experience; they also situation in which no upper limit of working time exists function to reduce undeclared and illegal work (IFAU, in practice. As might be expected, this can result in long 2004; Karlsson, 2009). However, as yet, there is no clear working hours and a reduced work–life balance. evidence that this objective has been achieved. Casual work does not easily fit into collective bargaining Indeed, the exponential increase in casual work over the processes. In some Member States, regulatory and last two decades has affected all parts of the institutional frameworks give a role to collective population. Workers with lower levels of education, the bargaining in monitoring casual work. While no clear young and elderly are traditionally associated with evidence is available, the information from the case casual work (choosing casual work, for instance, in studies of Eurofound (2015) points towards a theoretical combination with education or as a supplement to coverage of casual workers by the same collective rights retirement income). However, an increase has also been as any core staff. seen among people with higher levels of qualifications (for example, in France and Italy, this is the largest However, in practice, it seems to be difficult to organise group) as well as people aged 35–55. Furthermore, on- employees in short fixed-term employment. call contracts are seen to have the potential to steer the Nevertheless, there is some evidence that unions are labour market towards an increased acceptance of considering the specific situation of casual workers by precarious forms of employment (IFAU, 2001) and to informing them about their rights, for example. create labour market segmentation. Implications for the labour Among the main challenges ahead, facilitating theimplementation of regulations and clarifying regulatory market frameworks should be prioritised. The primary issue regarding casual work remains the abuse of legislation The impact of casual work still cannot be fully described governing it. Implementation of existing regulations as its definition is not homogeneous across countries. depends on their clarity and scope for interpretation, as This creates a number of challenges regarding well as on the monitoring, enforcement and sanctioning availability and quality of quantitative data relating to mechanisms that are put in place in the country. casual work; these data are highly variable, patchy and Although many countries have regulations in place that uneven across Member States. Nevertheless, there are aim at ensuring equivalent working conditions for all indications that casual work has grown exponentially workers, enforcement is often difficult and violations of across the EU. existing regulations are common. 10 ICT-based mobile work General characteristics While there are large differences regarding the incidence of this form of employment across countries, ICT-based mobile work denotes work arrangements they all have in common that occasional mobile work is carried out at least partly, but regularly, outside the much more common than regular mobile work. ‘main office’, be it the employer’s premises or a customised home office, using ICT for online connection Most ICT-based mobile workers are male with skilled to shared company computer systems (Andriessen and knowledge and of core working age (Eurofound and Vartiainen, 2006; European Commission, 2010; International Labour Office, 2017). They are more likely Eurofound, 2012). Work takes place wherever and to work in the sectors of financial intermediation, real whenever it suits the work activities, task, business estate activities, public administration and electricity, schedule and lifestyle of the worker; it is performed not gas and water supply. necessarily at a specific place but also ‘on the road’ (Andriessen and Vartiainen, 2006; European Implications for working Commission, 2010). ICT-based mobile work can be conducted by both employees and self-employed conditions workers. ICT-based mobile work is related to a higher level of ICT-mobile mobile work conducted by employees could autonomy (and hence flexibility) than traditional forms in most cases be considered as a variation of of employment. As this increased level of autonomy also teleworking, in that the worker is conducting their job brings about a reduced level of control for the outside the employer’s premises. However, in contrast employer, companies introducing ICT-based mobile to teleworking, mobile work does not take place in a work have established approaches to address this. They fixed location, but more flexibly in a variety of places or may use remuneration based on results rather than on even while traveling. working hours, or they may create technically advanced monitoring instruments – for example, systems Often, employees conduct ICT-mobile work on the basis capturing whether a worker is logged on to the of standard work contracts, in most cases related to company network, how long they are working for and full-time positions of indefinite duration. on what task. Both approaches can be disadvantageous Implementation and application of mobile work is done for workers if they influence the wage level (depending in an informal way, covered by a general element of more on the workers’ personal capability to efficiently flexibility in the company agreement or terms of organise their work), work intensity and/or stress level. contract. Furthermore, full transparency of each activity might Certain preconditions must be met before ICT-based also interfere with the worker’s privacy. mobile work can be implemented. First of all, it must be Another important advantage of ICT-based mobile work possible to perform the tasks inherent in the job outside is the opportunity of working in a location best suited to of the employer’s premises (or another fixed the tasks. This results in new forms of collaboration, workplace). Secondly, there needs to be a technical including better communication (within the set-up in place enabling workers to access and organisation, but also with clients and business exchange relevant information irrespective of place and partners) and better access to information (Popma, time. This requires some kind of cloud-based solution 2013). At the same time, this quick and continuous with virtual access from mobile devices, as well as the access to work-related information can result in an related infrastructure (for example, a network of overload of information which, in turn, leads to computers, laptops, tablets, mobile phones) and some insecurity and stress (Paridon and Hupke, 2009). arrangements regarding communication procedures and information exchange strategies. Thirdly, the work Available data from Eurofound’s European Working culture needs to be characterised by a sufficient level of Conditions Survey (Eurofound, 2015) shows that a trust from the employer towards staff to delegate higher share of ICT-based mobile workers participate in responsibilities and accept a certain level of loss of on-the-job training than workers who always operate at control. Finally, workers must have the capabilities to the employers’ premises. self-organise and self-manage their work as well as the One of the most problematic aspects of ICT-based willingness to do so. mobile work seems to be its tendency to often result in Across the EU, in 2015, around 17% of employees supplementary working time and atypical working time conducted telework or ICT-based mobile work patterns (such as working during the night or on (Eurofound and International Labour Office, 2017). weekends) (Eurofound and International Labour Office, 2017). Data from the EWCS (Eurofound, 2015) show that 11 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update a higher share of ICT-based mobile workers report on which ICT-based mobile work is based rarely include working long hours and not having had a rest period of regulations related to health and safety; if included, at least 11 hours at least once during the last month these refer only to the general health and safety compared to those exclusively working at employers’ requirements. Since, however, the workplace is outside premises. However, ICT-based mobile workers enjoy the employers’ premises, this somewhat ‘outsources’ higher working time autonomy and generally report a the employer’s obligations to workers. good level of job satisfaction. Another disadvantage of the isolation of mobile workers Implications for the labour is their lack of access to informal information and lack of integration into the entire process (they work solely market on their task and are less involved in the overall ICT-based mobile work has the potential to activities). Electronic communication does not match revolutionise production, consumption and the way of the richness of face-to-face communication: a lack of working. The shift towards an increasing dependence social contact may lead to a lack of opportunity to on information technology (IT) for organising work develop social/soft skills (such as teamwork or reduces the importance of the traditional physical tolerance), an increasingly negative communication workplace (Vinnova, 2007). Furthermore, increasing use tone (including assertive or hostile language) and of IT results in upskilling, new working practices and increased sense of work being impersonal. It is organisational efficiency gains, strengthening overall important to note that the decreases in productivity and competitiveness and contributing to business growth increases in effort needed to maintain effective (including job creation). The danger is, however, that information exchange may lead to uncertainty and employers and employees cannot adapt to the ambiguity, which can increase stress levels (European acceleration of technological developments and Commission, 2010). consequently fall behind. Furthermore, as reported by Meyer et al (2007) and also The flexibility that is related to this new form of shown by data from the EWCS (Eurofound, 2015), virtual employment is different from the flexibility associated collaboration may represent a lack of opportunity to with more traditional forms: ICT-based mobile work contact supervisors or colleagues, resulting in a implies more self-organisation and self-management perceived lack of support and some potential for for the workers involved. conflicts. It is expected that, if mobile work becomes more A number of ergonomic risk factors seem to be inherent widespread, work organisation will become a less in ICT-based mobile work: poor visual interfaces (due to hierarchical process. Individually tailored working the small display screens and controls of some mobile arrangements and employment relationships are devices); problems related to reflective glare; becoming a reality (Alasoini et al, 2012). insufficient levels of ambient light; excessive noise levels due to high volume settings to compensate for Finally, ICT-based mobile work offers some potential for background noise; bad posture related to the use of the labour market integration of certain groups, people devices in an unsuitable environment; and continuous who are unable to regularly work a certain number of exposure to radiation and electromagnetic fields arising core hours in the employer’s premises (whether for from the use of mobile devices (European Commission, health reasons or family responsibilities). In addition, it 2010; Popma, 2013). Maschke et al (2014) highlight that allows people living in more remote regions to work risk assessment regarding physical or psychological without having to spend a lot of time commuting (or to effects of mobile work is rare, and that the agreements use the commuting time for work). 12 Voucher-based work General characteristics Implications for working In this form of employment an employer acquires a conditions voucher from a third party (generally a governmental In general, voucher workers might experience job authority) to be used as payment for the worker of a insecurity, excessive flexibility and limited employment service rather than cash. Often, the services provided guarantees. On the other hand, it can be assumed that are specific tasks or fixed-term assignments and as a voucher workers succeed in arranging working time consequence are related to casual and portfolio work. with the employer according to their needs. Eurofound (2015) identified such systems, mainly Furthermore, having a job close to the workplace is related to household services and the agricultural deemed advantageous, particularly for voucher workers sector. The rationale behind the focus on these two with childcare responsibilities. Anecdotal evidence also sectors is that they are often core areas of undeclared points towards a high level of autonomy of voucher work, and voucher-based work aims to provide an easy- workers, particularly for those working in household to-handle instrument to legalise such employment. This services. At the same time, voucher workers might refers to a low level of administrative burden needed to suffer from social isolation as voucher workers hardly establish and end the employment relationship, as well ever work in teams. as the flexibility to do so quickly in line with volatile In some systems, minimum hourly wages are demand for personnel. prescribed. While they are deemed decent, the income Due to this intention, voucher-based work is relatively of the voucher workers can still be considered low well regulated. Legislation, for example, specifies the overall due to the limited working hours. However, an tasks that can be commissioned through this form of advantage is that remuneration is available employment, the maximum scope (to avoid bypassing comparatively quickly – for example, without having to of other employment regulations) or wage levels and wait for the end of the month. social protection coverage. The client’s obligation to cover some social insurance The vast majority of workers under the voucher system contributions entitles the worker to some benefits, are marginal employees or have an out-of-the-labour thereby improving their social protection compared force status (Korunka et al, 2007). Workers tend to be with undeclared work. younger, female and have a low level of qualifications In those countries in which working conditions are not (INSEE, 2008). regulated by law or collective agreements, these are subject to agreements between employers and employees. Bearing in mind that voucher-based work is often related to physically demanding activities, the potential long-term danger for the workers’ health should not be neglected. In general, voucher workers have limited access to training and career development possibilities are scarce (Gerard et al, 2012; Kreimer and Hartl, 2004). 13 Portfolio work General characteristics On the negative side, working time might be open-ended and access to training and other Eurofound (2015) understands portfolio work as small- HR measures is limited. Work patterns might be scale contracting by freelancers, self-employed or micro irregular and uncertain as regards type of work, enterprises, conducting work for a large number of workload and frequency, and phases of very high work clients. According to Clinton et al (2006) its main intensity might follow phases of no work at all. This can characteristics are: result in situations in which portfolio workers feel self-managed independent income-generating forced to work during illness, postpone holidays or work£ work, including the ability to present and market continuously for long periods (Platman, 2004). oneself Furthermore, income security may be low. £ building and maintaining client relationships from a Assignments might not match with skills and experience variety of industries, including the need to (if the portfolio worker takes on any jobs just to secure a continuously adapt to different work situations and sufficient workload and income), and social status clients’ requirements might be lower than for more standard forms of £ development of a range of work that is situated employment (Cohen and Mallon, 1999; Fraser and Gold, outside any single organisation 2001; Platman, 2004; Wild, 2012). Due to limited social interactions – especially if working from home – Portfolio work is considered an increasing practice portfolio workers might experience social isolation among the creative workforce (for example, journalists, (Clinton et al, 2006; Wild, 2012). translators and the media industry) (Platman, 2004; Deuze, 2008; Fraser and Gold, 2001) and among those working in professional, scientific and technical work Implications for the labour (Leighton and Brown, 2013). market Portfolio work is dominated by male, middle-to-older- Portfolio work provides a flexible type of employment aged workers, driven by the desire for independence which can contribute to extending the working lives of and self-fulfilment (Leighton and Brown, 2013). They the ageing labour force up to and beyond retirement tend to work on local and regional markets, and a high age. In such cases, portfolio work provides an share works from home (Dörflinger et al, 2011). opportunity for additional income after retirement with flexibility for both workers and employers, based on the Implications for working acknowledgement of the knowledge/expertise of the older worker (Platman, 2004; Wild, 2012). conditions Portfolio work provides employees with the opportunity Portfolio work is characterised by high flexibility (and to start self-employed activities next to their regular job, hence good work–life balance) and increased income to build up professional networks, experience and initial levels – if job opportunities are available. A portfolio financial stability before an entrepreneur starts their career can contribute positively to working life, own company (Wild, 2012). especially when combined with flexibility, greater autonomy (self-management and high levels of responsibility), a sense of personal fulfilment, satisfaction, a variation of activities, new challenges and opportunities to combine different skills, and choice in terms of projects and remuneration. 14 Platform work General characteristics In recent years, an increasing heterogeneity among types of platform work has become evident. The criteria Platform work is a form of employment that uses an for differentiating types of platform work relate to online platform to enable organisations or individuals structural characteristics and the business model of the to access other organisations or individuals to solve platforms, characteristics of the tasks, accessibility of specific problems or to provide specific services in the platform or tasks and the matching process exchange for payment. Eurofound (2018) understands (Eurofound, 2018). Following from that, a ‘platform platform work to have a number of defining features: work type’ is a combination of a specific manifestation the organisation of paid work through online of each of the identified classification elements,£ platforms resulting in a theoretical scope of millions of types. In practice, there currently seem to be 10 types with a £ the involvement of three parties – online platform, critical mass of platforms and workers in Europe client and worker (Eurofound, forthcoming). £ its use to conduct specific tasks or solve specific problems its operation as a form of outsourcing/contracting Implications for working£ out conditions £ ‘jobs’ are broken down into ‘tasks’ The pay associated with platform work seems to be low £ services are provided on an on-demand basis and insecure (Irani and Silberman, 2013; Ipeirotis, 2010; As the main traded good is labour, not the material or Silberman et al, 2010; Felstiner, 2011; Klebe and capital good itself, sales platforms (like eBay) or Neugebauer, 2014; Alkhatib et al, 2017). However, larger platforms on which access to accommodation is tasks, services delivered offline and those requiring provided (like Airbnb) as well as financial services fall greater skills tend to be higher priced and compensated outside the scope of this understanding. Similarly, at market prices (Eurofound, 2015; Schmid-Drüner, non-commercial transactions – like volunteering, 2016; Schmidt, 2017; De Groen and Maselli, 2016; networking, social media (such as LinkedIn) or any Degryse, 2016). Furthermore, as platform workers are other form of transaction not involving any payment – generally considered to be self-employed/freelancers, are not considered to constitute platform work. they receive neither company benefits (including access to HR measures such as training, mentoring or Examples of tasks commissioned through platform coaching) nor job security (Felstiner, 2011); lack of work include developing web content and software; social protection is also a factor. database building and cleaning; classifying web pages; transcribing scanned documents and audio clips; Other negative aspects highlighted are information classifying and tagging images; reviewing documents; asymmetry (lack of information about employers and checking websites for specific content; validating search the tasks to be performed) (Codagnone et al, 2016; results; and tasks related to advertising, such as the Eurofound, 2015; Felstiner, 2011; Schmid-Druner, 2016); design of logos or the drafting of slogans (Horton and the lack of a reliable dispute resolution system (for Chilton, 2010; Felstiner, 2011). Next to such services that example, to arbitrate in the case of an employer are delivered online, platform work can also be used for refusing to pay for work done); the possibility of privacy services delivered offline, such as taxi rides or domestic violation (as workers often have to disclose personal services (for example, gardening or maintenance tasks). information without a clear guarantee of confidentiality); and the lack of support from colleagues While platforms have to follow general legal and managers (Durward et al, 2016; Schmidt and frameworks, such as commercial codes, civil codes, Kathmann, 2017). In addition, tasks – particularly micro consumer protection acts, data protection legislation, tasks – commissioned through platform work tend to be and others, across Europe there is very limited specific low-skilled and may be trivial in nature – hence, not very regulation of the employment relationships in platform rewarding as regards work content. work. This results in a situation in which the employment status of platform workers is legally unclear and the subject of much debate. 15 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update However, the increased level of autonomy regarding Implications for the labour freedom to choose when and where to work, how long to spend working, and what work to perform (resulting market in a better work–life balance and the opportunity to Silberman et al (2010) pointed out that platform work combine multiple jobs) are often indicated as the main has created work for many people in a time of positive aspects of platform work, together with the uncertainty, while other authors state that it creates opportunities of realising substantial gains in personal new opportunities for income and social mobility in productivity, as workers have the possibility to adapt regions of the world with stagnant local economies, service provision to their personal working patterns while mitigating the challenges arising from a shortage (Felstiner, 2011; Howe, 2008; Berg, 2016; De Groen and of experts in specific geographical areas (Heeks, 2017; Maselli, 2016). Nevertheless, some characteristics of Malik et al, 2017; Schmidt, 2017). specific platforms limit the flexibility and autonomy of platform workers. In particular, platforms that have established competitions for tasks might provide an opportunity for Another positive aspect of platform work is its potential young professionals with good skills but with little track to create skills development opportunities and facilitate record: award criteria would focus more on the content learning-by-doing (Barnes et al, 2014; Eurofound, 2015; than on previous experience and reputation. Graham et al, 2017; Kuek et al, 2015; Schmidt, 2017). However, Kittur et al (2013) highlight that platform work can displace current workers and replace some forms of skilled work with unskilled work, as jobs are broken down into smaller tasks, although some platforms establish strategies to ensure that high-quality work is commissioned through the platform. And there is the risk that comparatively secure dependent employment could be transformed into more precarious forms of employment if platform work becomes more common for specific types of jobs. 16 Collaborative self-employment General characteristics coworkers (particularly if the coworking centre offers 24/7 access); some coworking spaces provide, for Cooperation among self-employed workers and among example, childcare facilities. Furthermore, co-working SMEs is a traditional way of doing business in order to can reduce the feeling of isolation that self-employed overcome the limitations imposed on those forms of workers or freelancers may experience. The enhanced economic activity by their smaller scale. However, social interaction may also result in improved soft skills Eurofound (2015) focuses on three forms of cooperation and hence employability. recently emerging that go beyond traditional supply- chain or business-partner relationships: Some cooperatives and umbrella organisations are beneficial for workers as they give better access to £ umbrella organisations social protection while providing the opportunity to £ co-working develop one’s own business activity. £ cooperatives Umbrella organisations provide self-employed workers Implications for the labour with some support related to administrative obligations market (such as filing tax forms and drafting invoices) while the workers retain the main characteristics of Umbrella organisations contribute to a more dynamic entrepreneurial activity (risk, independence, autonomy labour market, enabling more people to enter into and control). In some cases, membership in an umbrella self-employment due to reduced administrative organisation qualifies the self-employed worker or burdens, and resulting in a lower number of long-term freelancer for specific benefits, such as better social unemployed (Tillväxtverket, 2012). Another study protection standards than those offered by standard concludes that umbrella employment is often a self-employment. Self-employed workers in umbrella transient phase from regular paid employment to organisations tend to be older and more highly skilled. self-employment (IFAU, 2001). Co-working refers to the sharing of work space and Similarly, a successful co-working space can attract back office/supportive tasks. It goes beyond availing of self-employed workers and start-up companies, and serve a ‘company hotel’: it entails more intensive cooperation as the starting point for synergies among co-workers and exchange among the self-employed workers in the (and hence new project ideas). This indirectly benefits the co-working centre. Co-working spaces seem to be labour market through enhanced entrepreneurial activity, emerging particularly in non-traditional sectors, such as mainly in dynamic and innovation-oriented economic creative industries, but also in consultancy (Eichhorst, sectors. As many of the currently existing co-working 2012). Workers tend to be younger (aged around 35–40 centres are clustered in metropolitan areas, they could years), highly skilled and mostly nationals of the host also contribute to sustainable urban development and country. structural/sectoral change. Cooperatives do not have the ‘shared location’ element The European Parliament report on the contribution of of co-working, but are characterised by even more cooperatives to overcoming the economic crisis points intensive cooperation among workers in terms of out that cooperatives play an essential role in the production, marketing and strategic management.1 This European economy, especially in times of crisis, by helps workers meet their common economic, social, combining profitability with solidarity, creating and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly high-quality jobs, strengthening social, economic and owned and democratically controlled enterprise.2 regional cohesion and generating social capital (European Parliament, 2013). Many cooperatives have proved themselves to be more resilient in times of crisis Implications for working than many conventional enterprises, both in terms of conditions employment rates and business closures (Roelants et al, 2012; Zevi et al, 2011). Moreover, cooperatives can Co-working is seen to be beneficial for work–life balance effectively promote entrepreneurship, as they allow as it helps to separate the private and working sphere groups of citizens to jointly take on business while facilitating a high level of flexibility for the responsibilities. 1 Although cooperatives are not necessarily considered to include self-employed workers, they are discussed in this section due to the ‘networking element’ they share with the other collaborative forms of self-employment described here. 2 http://www.cicopa.coop/What-is-a-cooperative.html 17 Conclusions and policy pointers Main characteristics of new Exceptions are casual work and voucher-based work, for which a regulatory framework has been established forms of employment in order to avoid abuse or as a means to legalise The mapping exercise conducted in the framework of undeclared work. Eurofound (2015) discovered a wide variety of new Employee sharing, job sharing, interim management, employment trends. New forms of employment have casual work, voucher-based work and cooperatives been emerging due to an increased demand from have been found to be more prominent in traditional employers and/or employees for enhanced flexibility, industries, while ICT-based mobile work, portfolio work, either due to economically challenging times or societal platform work, umbrella organisations and co-working developments. Consequently, some of the forms of are more related to sectors such as IT or creative employment discussed are opportunity-driven while industries. others emerge out of necessity, and the respective Workers in interim management, ICT-based mobile drivers might differ between employers and workers. work, portfolio work, umbrella organisations and co- In most Member States, the majority of the analysed working tend to be highly skilled experts, while casual forms of employment do not have a specific legal or and voucher-based workers are lower skilled. In collectively agreed basis. This might be attributed to employee sharing, job sharing and platform work, both their recent emergence as a practice rather than being a can be found. Casual work, ICT-based mobile work, strategically planned labour market development. Figure 3: Workers’ and employers’ drivers for engaging in new forms of employment Platform work Collaborative self-employment Voucher-based work ICT based Portfolio work mobile work Interim Casual work Employee sharing management Job sharing Necessity driven Opportunity driven Platform work Interim Employee sharing Job sharing management Voucher-based Casual work work ICT based mobile work Source: Eurofound 18 Employers Workers Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update platform work and co-working are characterised by a In a similar way, voucher-based work shows some less high share of younger workers, while older workers are favourable working conditions (mainly job insecurity, more dominant in interim management, portfolio work social and professional isolation, as well as limited and umbrella organisations, since a longer work access to HR measures and career development), but experience is required. Except for casual work, these can be explained by the type of job/tasks for voucher-based work and platform work, it can be which they are applied rather than the form of assumed that the new form of employment is the main employment itself. On the contrary, the specific concept or exclusive income source for the workers. can be considered to bring some advantages to workers, notably the legalisation of their status and, Impact on working conditions and consequently, some social protection, minimumincome, and health and safety standards. the labour market Among the analysed new forms of employment, casual While it needs to be highlighted that the operational work is the one which raises most concerns regarding implications of each form of employment might working conditions. It is characterised by low levels of strongly vary from case to case, some generalisations job and income security, limited social protection, can be derived from the research on hand, bearing in limited access to HR measures and in many cases not mind that elements presented as beneficial in the very exciting tasks. The high level of flexibility might be following paragraphs can be disadvantageous in appreciated by some workers who benefit from an individual cases and vice versa (depending on the improved work–life balance, but tends to be too much employers’ and employees’ characteristics and for the majority of casual workers insofar as more preferences, as well as the bilateral agreements continuity would be appreciated. between them). With the exception of casual work, the flexibility In particular, employee sharing and job sharing seem to inherent in most new forms of employment can be result in beneficial working conditions; interim considered as positive for the working conditions of management can also be considered advantageous, affected workers (not only for employers), enabling bearing in mind the characteristics of the affected them to achieve a better work–life balance. In addition, workers. For example, higher stress levels or bearing the increased level of autonomy, responsibilities and responsibility oneself for training and career content of tasks are assessed positively by workers. development might be considered ‘normal’ for this With regards to access to training and skills highly specialised managerial staff and acceptable given development, and the related career development the other benefits inherent in this form of employment. opportunities, the picture is not so straightforward. For dependent employees, ICT-based mobile work While employee sharing, job sharing, platform work and offers some important advantages related to flexibility, collaborative self-employment seem to have positive autonomy and empowerment, while at the same time effects on these elements, interim management, casual bringing about some dangers related to work work, voucher-based work and portfolio work have less intensification, such as higher stress levels, increased favourable effects. working time, the blurring of boundaries between work and private life and the outsourcing of traditional Job insecurity and social/professional isolation are employer responsibilities (notably in the field of health widespread among the analysed new forms of and safety) to the workers. employment, which again can be explained by the strong flexibility element. This also brings about higher For freelancers and the self-employed, portfolio work, stress levels and work intensity as workers tend to work platform work and collaborative self-employment harder in the hope of gaining more security if they prove mainly offer the potential of enriching the content of the to be a good performer. tasks through diversification. The underlying model for all three forms of voluntary engagement in a variety of What is also striking is the considerable lack of activities enhances workers’ autonomy and hence has representation of the workers in these forms of positive effects on flexibility and work–life balance employment. Again, this might be attributed to the (as it is up to the worker to choose). However, it can also enhanced flexibility, resulting in a fragmented be a disadvantage due to high competition and the workforce from the perspective of workers’ pressure to take on any task that is available. These representatives, making it difficult for workers’ forms of employment are, at the same time, representatives to identify and approach workers characterised by job and income insecurity and low engaged in these forms of employment. social protection. However, these characterise freelance and self-employed work in general, and are not specific to these emerging forms of employment. 19 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update As regards labour market effects, employee sharing, job some evidence hints towards job creation possibilities; sharing and interim management seem to be the most at the same time, its potential to ‘crowd out’ standard beneficial of the analysed new forms of employment, employment is highlighted. The latter is also observed – while casual work can be considered the most even more so – for casual work and platform work. disadvantageous. Most of the emerging forms of employment discussed All of the identified new forms of employment have the are seen to contribute to labour market innovation and potential of positive effects on the labour market making the labour market more attractive, in terms of integration of specific groups of workers. In the case of offering job opportunities better suited to the specific job sharing, casual work or voucher-based work, these needs of workers (as in job sharing or ICT-based mobile groups are mainly people who cannot or do not want to work), offering the possibility to try out self- do a full-time job – for example, due to care employment in a comparatively sheltered environment responsibilities, engagement in educational activities or with little entrepreneurial risk involved (portfolio work, ill health. Interim management, but also job sharing, platform work, collaborative self-employment) or may be beneficial for older workers to extend their improving the regional labour market through working life up to or beyond retirement age. Casual cooperative HR management (employee sharing). work and platform work might offer job opportunities to These innovative HR practices can result in young people, giving them access to the labour market organisational learning as well as enhanced knowledge to gain their first job experiences. Employee sharing, transfer among workers and also across companies. In ICT-based mobile work and platform work can also be combination with the often favourable training/skills beneficial for workers located in remote or rural areas development opportunities, this can result in a general with limited job opportunities. upskilling of the labour force for most of the analysed In contrast to this, the job creation effects of the new new forms of employment. forms of employment are rather limited. Only employee On the negative side, however, casual work and sharing seems to have real job creation potential, while voucher-based work in particular could contribute to job sharing and interim management are assessed as greater labour market segmentation, as they might contributing to job retention. With voucher-based work, result in a widespread acceptance of fragmented jobs, Figure 4: Assessment of implications of new forms of employment for working conditions and labour market, by form of employment Job sharing Employee Voucher-based sharing work Interim management Collaborative ICT based mobile self-employment work Portfolio work Platform work Casual work Working conditions Source: Eurofound 20 Labour market Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update related to low income and limited social protection. to avoid exploring workplace or labour market As specific groups of workers have been identified to be innovations (for example, employee sharing, interim dominant in these forms of employment, social management or job sharing). In those cases, polarisation might be an outcome. As regards ICT-based information provision and other awareness-raising mobile work, there is some inherent danger that not all measures targeted at both employers and workers are groups in the labour market can keep up with these new recommended. Some of these forms could be a more technological developments and may be left behind, beneficial alternative to other forms of flexible work again resulting in some labour market segmentation. In that turn out to be less advantageous for the workers contrast, job sharing might contribute to diminishing and the labour market. labour market segmentation, particularly as regards the In some cases, the labour market is not ideally prepared (re)integration of people with care responsibilities, and to support or even allow the application of such experiencing ill health. beneficial new forms of employment. This either refers To conclude this section, it can be summarised that to cultural aspects such as a negative attitude towards among the analysed new forms of employment, job or low wage levels in part-time work in some new sharing, employee sharing and interim management Member States which hinders the use of job sharing, or seem to provide the most beneficial working conditions existing legislation imposing a framework on the new and labour market implications. ICT-based mobile work form of employment, not allowing its full exploitation brings about some positive working conditions, while (for example, employee sharing or voucher-based the labour market effects might be partly negative. work). However, voucher-based work has some good labour Regarding the regulation of new forms of employment market potential, while working conditions show room more generally (and referring to both legislation and for improvement. Casual work is the form of collective agreement), the anecdotal evidence from this employment that – from both a labour market project highlights the room for improvement that exists perspective and regarding working conditions – raises in terms of clarifying and facilitating the frameworks. the most concerns. While it is acknowledged that they need to be designed in a way so as to be a sound safety net for workers, they Policy pointers should at the same time find a balance incorporating the flexibility needed by the employers, particularly in The question arises as to whether there is a need for the current economic climate. In addition, they should policy intervention, be it on the part of governments or be formulated in a clear and concise way to make them social partners. For some of the discussed emerging easy to understand for employers, workers, and their forms of employment (such as portfolio work or representatives and consultants. Furthermore, it is umbrella organisations) probably no specific initiatives evident that frequent legislative changes cause are needed as the challenges related to them (such as confusion and a feeling of insecurity among the target low social protection, job and income insecurity) can groups. be attributed to the general characteristics of the self-employed or freelancers and are not specific to this For some of the analysed forms of employment (notably particular way of performing their activities.3 casual work, but to some extent also ICT-based mobile work, job sharing and platform work), the findings of On the other hand, the current research has raised some the current research clearly show the need for some issues where public intervention could be useful, either safety nets for workers. In some countries this is already to enhance the use of new forms of employment that done through legislation or collective agreements. have been assessed as beneficial for both workers and Sometimes this results in a situation in which either the employers, or to counteract practices that might workers are still not well protected, or they are deteriorate working conditions or labour market protected in a way that makes the form of employment developments. (in practice) unusable for the employers and perhaps The new forms of employment that could have positive leads to their resorting to undeclared work. A balance is effects on working conditions and the labour market are hard to find, highlighting once more the benefit of not very widespread across Europe, which is to be cross-national exchange of experiences and lessons attributed to their recent emergence, and the tendency learned. 3 This does not mean that these issues should not be addressed, but rather that within them or going beyond them no particular focus on these forms of employment seems to be required. 21 Overview of new forms of employment – 2018 update Furthermore, not only should regulating frameworks be Quite naturally, the above pointers are strongly related established or reconsidered, but also monitoring and to labour market and social policy. However, it may be control mechanisms might need to be designed or desirable to extend the discussion on new forms of improved. From the anecdotal evidence of this project, employment to other policy fields. 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(2013), patterns in availability and use of job share and tamen, Berlin., Discussion papers in Economics, Nottigham Trent University, Zevi A., Zanotti, A., Soulage, F. and Zelaia A. (2011), United Kingdom. Beyond the crisis: Cooperatives, work, finance. Creating wealth for the long term, CECOP, Brussels. 26 EF/18/050 Across Europe, new forms of employment are emerging that differ significantly from traditional employment. Some of these forms of employment transform the relationship between employer and employee while others change work organisation and work patterns. They often involve locations other than the usual employer’s premises, and or extensive use of information and communications technology. This report identifies nine forms of employment that are either new or have become increasingly important in Europe since the year 2000. All of the nine forms discussed are aimed at increasing flexibility for employers and/or employees. Some may benefit employers and employees equally, but in a few cases there are concerns regarding their impact on working conditions and the labour market. The report highlights the need for awareness of potential problems and of safety nets for workers. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) is a tripartite European Union Agency, whose role is to provide knowledge in the area of social, employment and work-related policies. Eurofound was established in 1975 by Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1365/75, to contribute to the planning and design of better living and working conditions in Europe. ISBN: 978-92-897-1723-6 doi:10.2806/09266 TJ-03-18-061-EN-N