LESSONS FROM PERU: DECLARATIONS OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL 

HERITAGE AS  

A DETERMINANT OF SUSTAINABLE GROWTH 

 

 

 

 

 

A Thesis  

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School  

of Cornell University  

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of  

Master of Arts  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

by 

Jhon Roger Cotrina Alfaro  

May 2025  



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

©2025 Jhon Roger Cotrina Alfaro  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



ABSTRACT 

 

This thesis investigates the intricate connections between cultural factors and economic 

poverty in Peru, focusing on Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage (DICH). The 

research provides insights into poverty alleviation and sustainable growth, offering 

valuable implications for policymakers and heritage researchers. The study explores the 

contribution of DICH to the local economy, using a combination of quantitative 

analysis, archival research, interviews, and data analysis, and delving into the socio-

economic dynamics in the Peruvian Andes.  

The study also uncovers a notable negative correlation between DICH_INC10 and 

economic poverty, suggesting that each additional declaration of intangible cultural 

heritage is associated with an average decrease of 1.47 percentage points in the 

economic poverty rate. The relationship underscores the potential of cultural heritage 

preservation to stimulate economic development and poverty reduction through cultural 

industries. 

The findings underscore the importance of integrating tangible and intangible heritage 

indicators to understand heritage preservation’s role in sustainable development. This 

research highlights the need for community involvement and legislative support in 

preserving cultural heritage, emphasizing its potential to foster social cohesion and 

sustainable growth. 

 

 



iv 
 

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 

 

Jhon Roger Cotrina Alfaro is a systems engineer, a preservation planner, and a 

sustainable community expert with a robust educational background and extensive 

professional experience in cultural management, nonprofit leadership, and sustainable 

community development.  

Notable achievements and prestigious scholarships mark Jhon’s academic journey. He 

graduated with a Master of Arts in Historic Preservation Planning from Cornell 

University in August 2024. To accomplish that, he has been honored with multiple 

scholarships and grants, including the Historic Preservation Alumni Association Grant 

(2022), the Association for Preservation Technology International/Getty Scholarship 

(2023), the National Council for Preservation Education Scholarship (2023), and the 

National Trust for Historic Preservation Diversity Scholarship (2024/2025). 

Additionally, he received research funding from the Clarence S. Stein Institute (2024). 

Jhon also holds a Master of Science in Sustainable Communities from the State 

University of New York (SUNY) at Binghamton, where he graduated summa cum laude 

as a Fulbright Scholar in 2021. He excelled in the Geothermal Collegiate Competition, 

securing fifth place. He further enhanced his expertise with a Certificate in Nonprofit 

Management from the College of Community and Public Affairs at SUNY-Binghamton. 

His earlier education includes a Specialization in English Language from the National 

Program of Scholarships and Educational Credit (PRONABEC), where he graduated 

first in his class and was selected as an English teacher. He also earned a Diploma in 

Project Management from ESAN University and a degree as a Systems Engineer from 



v 
 

Cesar Vallejo University – Trujillo, where he got a scholarship for first place in his 

class, graduating magna cum laude. 

Jhon’s professional career spans various roles, demonstrating his leadership and 

dedication to cultural and community development. Since August 2022, he has been the 

Founder and Vice President of MISKI PACHA, a nonprofit organization in Cajamarca, 

Peru. In this role, he liaises between the president, members, and stakeholders, oversees 

departmental operations, manages public relations efforts, and develops strategic plans. 

Jhon has been a key figure in the “CAXAS” Cultural Association since January 2015, 

where he promotes cultural projects and socio-cultural development at the local level. 

Additionally, in June 2024, Jhon began working as a Management Assistant and Grant 

Writer for the Colebrookedale Railroad Company in Boyertown, PA, USA. 

Jhon’s experience extends to public service, having worked with the Ministry of 

Culture/D.D.C.-Cajamarca as the Head of the Cultural Industries Area, where he 

managed cultural projects, public budgets, and institutional relationships. He also 

contributed to the Municipality of Arequipa as an assistant in the Social Development 

and Culture Management Offices. 

Jhon has contributed to research in historic preservation and cultural management. From 

August 2021 to August 2023, he interned with the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation in Washington, DC, where he transferred archives to a new database and 

managed job postings. His research also includes projects on systems dynamics and 

cultural development in Cajamarca, Peru, and other Andean Countries. 



vi 
 

He has also worked as a Teaching Assistant at Cornell University and as an English 

teacher at various institutions in Peru, including the Cultural Peruvian North American 

Institute (ICPNA), affiliated with the US Embassy in Peru. 

Jhon is a native Spanish speaker, fluent in English (scoring 100 points on the TOEFL-

IBT), has basic French proficiency, and started to learn Quechua. 

Jhon is actively involved in community and cultural activities, managing projects that 

promote education, cultural heritage, and tourism in Peru. He has organized discussions, 

published books, and managed funds for cultural events and festivals. Furthermore, 

Jhon has worked on cultural projects that have been recognized nationally in Peru, 

including the “Workshop: Heirs of Clarín Cajamarquino” (first place) and “The Culture 

Close to You” (third place).  

Thus, Jhon Roger Cotrina Alfaro’s extensive experience, academic excellence, and 

commitment to cultural heritage and sustainable communities position him as a leader 

in his field. 

  



vii 
 

DEDICATION 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To the resilient Andean communities of my beloved Cajamarca—and to all those across 

Peru and the Andes—who carry the wisdom of the land, the strength of memory, and 

the spirit of collective hope. 

Your perseverance, culture, and dignity inspire my purpose and guide my path.  



viii 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 

First and foremost, I am immensely grateful to Dr. Michael Tomlan, Program Director 

of Historic Preservation Planning at Cornell University, for his unwavering support, 

insightful guidance, and invaluable mentorship. His expertise in historic preservation 

has been a beacon throughout my academic journey, providing me with the foundational 

knowledge and critical insights necessary to navigate this complex discipline. Dr. 

Tomlan’s encouragement, financial support, and constructive feedback have shaped my 

research and academic pursuits, enabling me to approach my studies with confidence 

and rigor. His commitment to my development as a scholar and professional has 

profoundly influenced my understanding of preservation principles and practices, and 

for this, I am deeply thankful.  

I also extend my heartfelt thanks to Professor George Homsy, Program Director of 

Sustainable Communities at SUNY-Binghamton, whose mentorship and support during 

my time at SUNY have been crucial to my success. Professor Homsy’s dedication to 

sustainability and community development has inspired me to integrate these vital 

concepts into my work. His guidance in sustainable communities has given me a 

comprehensive understanding of creating and implementing strategies that promote 

environmental stewardship and social equity.  

I am profoundly thankful for the mentorship, support, and opportunities provided by 

Professor Nathaniel Guest. His practical insights into historic preservation and 

encouragement have greatly enriched my understanding and application of preservation 

tools for community development, shaping me into a more knowledgeable and capable 

professional in this field. His guidance has been instrumental in navigating the 



ix 
 

complexities of historic preservation projects, and his support has been a cornerstone of 

my academic and professional development.  

I sincerely thank Professor Sara Bronin for her invaluable lectures on Peru, historic 

preservation, and international law. Her deep knowledge and passion for these subjects 

have significantly influenced my approach to preservation law and policy. Professor 

Bronin’s teachings have broadened my academic horizons and given me a nuanced 

understanding of the legal frameworks and international perspectives essential for 

effective preservation practice. 

I am deeply thankful for the scholarships and grants that have made my education 

possible. The Fulbright Scholarship administered by LASPAU was a turning point in 

my career, enabling me to undertake my master’s degree at SUNY-Binghamton and 

achieve academic excellence. The Historic Preservation Alumni Association Grant, the 

Association for Preservation Technology International/Getty Scholarship, the National 

Council for Preservation Education Scholarship, and the National Trust for Historic 

Preservation Diversity Scholarship have provided me with the financial and 

motivational support necessary to pursue my studies and research at Cornell University. 

My sincere appreciation goes to the Clarence S. Stein Institute for their research 

funding, which allows me to conduct an in-depth study on the impact of Declarations of 

Intangible Cultural Heritage in Peru at the district level.  I look forward to enriching the 

understanding of sustainable growth through cultural heritage. 

In the City and Regional Planning program, I am grateful to Professor Nancy Brooks, 

who evaluated my proposed regression model, and Professor John Carruthers, who 

lectured me about econometrics and economic growth models. I am proud and blessed 

because Professor Carruthers was also my thesis advisor. Their passion for data STATA 



x 
 

and quantitative analysis has greatly enhanced my research capabilities and analytical 

skills. 

I am grateful to the staff who guided and worked with me in the Ministry of 

Culture/D.D.C.-Cajamarca and the Sub-Management Office of Culture in the 

Municipality of Arequipa for providing me with opportunities to volunteer, work, and 

lead meaningful cultural projects that have significantly influenced my professional and 

academic development.  

I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my father, Hilario Cotrina Vera, and my mother, 

Sabina Martina Alfaro Vigo, former tillers of the soil and Andean Heritage bearers, for 

his unwavering support and encouragement throughout my educational endeavors. In 

the same way, I would like to acknowledge the support of my colleagues and friends at 

the Andean nonprofit Miski Pacha. Your dedication to heritage and community 

development has been a constant source of inspiration and motivation.  

Finally, to my HPP’ 24 and HPP’ 23 fellows, the camaraderie and support have been 

invaluable throughout this journey; the shared experiences and collective wisdom have 

enriched my learning and growth.  

To everyone who has contributed to my journey, directly or indirectly, I thank you for 

your support, guidance, and encouragement. These achievements would not have been 

possible without you.  



xi 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..iii 

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . ……vii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi 

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ….. . . . . . . . . . .... xiii 

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………….……xiii 

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 

CHAPTER ONE:  LEGACY OF QUECHUA AND CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS…..6 

 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . .6 

1.1. The Language of Peru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . 7 

1.2.  Adean Urbanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 

1.3.  The Current Legal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 

1.4.  Redefining Geography and Natural History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

1.5.  Culture and Sustainable Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 

CHAPTER II:  THE NATIONAL HERITAGE INSTITUTIONS…………………….27 

 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 

2.1. The Background of the National Institute of Culture (INC) ……………...29   

2.2.  The Change from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of Culture….31 

2.3.  The Shift in State Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 

CHAPTER III:  NON-MATERIAL HERITAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 

 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 

3.1.  General Law for the Protection of the Nation’s Cultural Heritage . . . . . . .42 



xii 
 

3.2.  Objectives and Benefits of DICHs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 

3.3.   Definitions according to Ministerial Resolution 33-2015-MC . . .. . . . . . .63 

3.4.   Procedure for Submitting a Declaration Request………………………...65 

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………...68 

CHAPTER FOUR:  LEGACY OF QUECHUA AND CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS  71 

 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71  

4.1.  Socio-Demographic Data:  2017 Peruvian Census. . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . .72  

4.2.  Economic Poverty Map 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 

4.3.  Interviews with Ministry Officials   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 

4.4.  Regression Equations and Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .87  

4.5.  Gathered and presented data……........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..90 

4.6.  Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………...91 

4.7.  Multiple Regression Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……92 

4.8.  Significance of the Individual Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 

4.9.  Regression-coefficient Interpretation. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94 

4.10.  Standardized Beta Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 

4.11.  Growth-theory Correlation and Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 

4.12.  Implications for Planning and Public Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 

4.13.  Additional Data and Model Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .103 

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 

CONCLUSION  …. . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 

APPENDIX... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  108 

BIBLIOGRAPHY .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………...160 

 

 

 

 



xiii 
 

 

LIST OF FIGURES 

 

Figure 1: Inka’s Heritage Records System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …08 

Figure 2:  First Documented Quechua-Spanish Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

Figure 3:  Grammar, Present Tense, Indicative Form, Quechua-Spanish . . . . . . . . . .  .13 

Figure 4:  La Huaconada Dance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………14 

Figure 5:  Eight-Natural Region Thesis of the Peruvian Andes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...19 

Figure 6:  Culture In, For, and As Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

Figure 7:  Holistic Systems Approach to Community Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . …..23 

Figure 8:  Casual Links Between Social Cohesion and Social Outcomes . . . . . . ……..24 

Figure 9:  Definition of Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………..41 

Figure 10:  General Law for the Protection of the Nation’s Cultural Heritage . . . . …..43 

Figure 11:  Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Peru . . . . . . ……………...62 

Figure 12:  2018 Monetary-Poverty Map (District Level) . . . . . ……………………...80 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

 

Table No.01:  Declaration categories in the Peruvian Heritage Regime. ............... ¡Error! 

Marcador no definido. 

Table No.02: Distribution of Declarations (1986-2022) by intangible heritage area.

 ........................................................................................ ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 

Table 3: DICH by year and by geographical scope (1986-2024) ... ¡Error! Marcador no 

definido. 

Table 4: Top 10 DICH at the Province Level (2004 – 2016) ......... ¡Error! Marcador no 

definido. 

Table 5: Top-20 Districts 2018 Monetary Poverty Map ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 



xiv 
 

Table 6: Peruvian UNESCO-ICH Lists .......................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 

Table 7: Public Servants in the areas of Intangible Cultural Heritage by Region. . ¡Error! 

Marcador no definido. 

Table 8: Dependent Variables, Data Source, and Coefficient Signs .... ¡Error! Marcador 

no definido. 

Table 9: Independent Variable and Data Source ............ ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 

Table 10: Descriptive Statistics for Exploratory Models. .............. ¡Error! Marcador no 

definido. 

Table 11: Exploratory Regression Models ..................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 

Table 12: Regression model: DICH_INC10 .................. ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 

Table 13: Exploratory Regression Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC10_Beta ...... ¡Error! 

Marcador no definido. 

Table 14: Descriptive Statistics of Variables for New Models. ..... ¡Error! Marcador no 

definido. 

Table 15: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC10 ........ ¡Error! 

Marcador no definido. 

Table 16: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC10_beta ¡Error! 

Marcador no definido. 

Table 17: DICH and Growth-Theory Regression Models ............. ¡Error! Marcador no 

definido. 

 

 



1 
 

INTRODUCTION 

 

This thesis unravels the intricate connections between cultural factors and economic 

poverty, concentrating on Peru's Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage (DICH). The 

significance of this research lies in its potential to provide insights into poverty alleviation, 

offering valuable implications for policymakers and heritage researchers alike. The overarching 

goal is to underscore the importance of integrating tangible and intangible heritage indicators to 

comprehensively understand heritage preservation's impacts on sustainability in the Andean 

country. The specific objectives include investigating the contribution of DICH to the 

improvement of the local economy in Peru, identifying specific mechanisms in this process, 

assessing the impacts of DICH on promoting education, equity, and community peace, and 

examining their role in enhancing economic distribution and reducing local conflicts.  The 

primary audience for this research includes policymakers, local communities, and researchers 

interested in the intersection of heritage preservation and sustainability in the whole Andean 

country. 

The research questions and corresponding hypotheses form a crucial framework for an in-

depth exploration of the intricate relationships between Declarations of Intangible Cultural 

Heritage (DICH) and sustainability dynamics in the Andean country. The initial question probes 

into how DICH positively influences the local economy, positing the hypothesis that the 

recognition and preservation of intangible cultural heritage contribute significantly to heightened 

economic activities and increased income generation per capita within the one hundred ninety-

nine provinces of Peru, potentially inspiring and motivating local communities to strive for 

economic growth.  



2 
 

My research employs quantitative analysis, archival research, interviews, longitudinal 

analysis, legal and institutional analysis, and data analysis with STATA to comprehensively 

explore the complex dynamics influencing economic poverty in the Peruvian Andes. 

Quantitative data is gathered from the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI) and 

the Ministry of Culture's official records. Archival research is conducted in major regions in 

Peru, focusing on historical data. Surveys and interviews involve officials from the Ministry of 

Culture, and longitudinal analysis will utilize historical records. Legal and institutional analysis 

involves examining legal documents and legal and institutional frameworks related to heritage 

preservation in Peru.  

In January 2021, I began collecting data and conducting preliminary research during my 

Master of Science in Sustainable Communities program. Under the guidance of Prof. George 

Homsy and close work with Professor Pamela Mischen, I started expanding my knowledge about 

the connection between heritage and sustainability. After being recommended by Prof. Homsy 

and gaining admission to the Historic Preservation Program at Cornell University, I continued 

my research with a more focused approach.  

Upon admission in June 2021, I began working once a week with Prof. Michael Tomlan. 

He provided in-depth lectures on his book, offering a comprehensive overview of the historic 

preservation system in the US. Prof. Tomlan also emphasized the importance of documentation. 

Under his guidance, I took core courses and independent courses with him to elaborate on my 

literature analysis during my master’s studies. 

In the Fall of 2023, I started the STATA and correlation analysis during the classes and 

office hours of Professor Nancy Brooks's course CRP 5450: Inferential Statistics for Planning 

and Public Policy.  



3 
 

In the Summer of 2023, I conducted on-site archival research in various major regions in 

Peru, focusing on the more than 400 manifestations of non-material cultural heritage. I had the 

opportunity to travel to Cajamarca and present to the leader of the area on Non-Material Heritage 

at the Ministry of Culture, Artist Jorge Lombardi, and other key representatives. This included 

the representative of the Chetilla District Quechua Association, the Association of Woman Poets 

and Writers leader Socorro Barrantes, the president of the Museum of the Cajamarquino Clarin 

Mr. Julio Zamora, the vice president of the Association of Tourist Guides of Cajamarca Mr. 

Fernando Cabrera, and representatives from the Regional Directorate of Tourism and Exterior 

Commerce such as the manager Mr. Alejandro Ñontol Acosta, and the local journalist Victor 

Marín Tello. 

 In the Spring of 2024, I expanded my understanding of econometrics, STATA modeling, 

and regression analysis in the course CRP 5250: Methods for Spatial Economic and 

Demographic Analysis, taught by Professor John Carruthers, my second advisor. He provided 

feedback on my proposed model and helped analyze the proper incorporation of the GINI 

variable in my future investigation. 

Under the mentorship of Prof. Michael Tomlan, I started communicating with the 

Ministry of Culture and representatives of the 24 regions of the country to collect additional 

essential information about the number of people working in the non-material heritage in the 

Ministry of Culture in each of the offices and their resumes to start personal interviews. 

The chapter sequence proceeds from the general to the specific contexts. Chapter I 

provides a literature overview of the frameworks for the thesis. Drawing on insights from various 

scholars, the discussion establishes the significance of integrating cultural resources into 

planning processes for community development. It emphasizes the importance of Declarations of 



4 
 

Intangible Cultural Heritage (DICH) in the Peruvian Andes, aligning with broader discussions on 

cultural planning, sustainability, and the role of heritage preservation in shaping national 

identity. Additionally, the chapter addresses the management challenges that cultural 

practitioners face, the need for legislation embedding culture in planning, and the 

interdisciplinary nature of understanding cultural heritage's relationship with development. This 

work challenges conventional urban-model designs, critiques Eurocentric evolutionary models, 

and underscores the original aspects of Andean urbanism, emphasizing the unique characteristics 

of the Andean area in the context of historical, social, and cultural development. 

Chapters II and III of the study are grounded in Peru's institutional and legal landscape, 

examining efforts to preserve tangible and intangible cultural heritage. The chapters delve into 

the Ministry of Culture’s history and legal framework, specifically the General Law for the 

Protection of the Nation's Cultural Heritage. It highlights the participatory process of declaring 

intangible cultural heritage, emphasizing community involvement, and detailing associated 

benefits.  Aligning with Pulgar's recognition of Peru's diverse geography, the chapter challenges 

historical divisions and underscores the importance of native knowledge. Furthermore, it shares 

common ground with Coloma (2023) regarding the focus on cultural heritage and its institutional 

framework, contributing to the broader discourse on the impact of cultural heritage on local 

development. 

Chapter IV of the study introduces a comprehensive set of variables and data sources, 

outlining the units of measurement and respective sources for population, altitude, Declarations 

of Intangible Cultural Heritage (DICH), secondary education degree, and unemployment rate. 

The hypotheses, including one regarding areas above the Quechua layer experiencing higher 

economic poverty, are established based on existing literature. The research strategies 



5 
 

incorporate quantitative analysis, archival research, surveys, interviews, review of secondary 

data, longitudinal study, legal and institutional analysis, and data mining using STATA. The 

chapter details the quantitative analysis approach, including the Gauss-Markov Theorem, 

regression models, and statistical rigor. It further presents a multiple regression model, 

diagnostic tests, significance checks, and interpretation of coefficients. The results indicate the 

influence of population density, altitude, DICH, secondary education, and unemployment on 

economic poverty, with planning and public policy implications. Suggestions for additional data, 

model improvement, and avenues for future research are also provided, emphasizing a holistic 

understanding of factors shaping the economic poverty landscape. 

My findings could inform the formulation of targeted cultural heritage policies, ensuring 

better integration into broader development strategies. Insights into sustainable development 

through the preservation of tangible and intangible cultural heritage contribute to the discourse 

on achieving holistic, culturally sensitive practices. This emphasis on community participation 

aligns with community-based development principles, potentially empowering local 

communities.  Additionally, my study's connection to legal and institutional frameworks holds 

implications for ongoing discussions, fostering more inclusive and effective heritage 

preservation. The chapter also highlights the characteristics of my study that can influence future 

work, such as its interdisciplinary approach, comprehensive understanding of heritage, emphasis 

on community participation, and unique focus on Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage. 

Moreover, the study's particular attention to the economic aspects of preserving intangible 

heritage in the Andean Country is distinctive, offering practical insights into the benefits of 

cultural heritage preservation. 

 



6 
 

CHAPTER I:  LEGACY OF QUECHUA AND CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS 

 

“We cannot preserve what we cannot document.”1 

Introduction 

This chapter explores the profound impact of Quechua, the language of the Inca Empire, 

on Peruvian cultural heritage and identity. By tracing the historical documentation and scholarly 

work surrounding Quechua, this chapter highlights the significance of linguistics connected with 

heritage in Peruvian history and society. 

The journey begins with Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, a prominent figure in the Dominican 

Order, who was the first to document Quechua in 1560. His efforts not only preserved the 

language but also provided valuable insights into the culture and administration of the Inca 

Empire. The Dominicans, known for their intellectual rigor and dedication to education, played a 

crucial role in the early years of the University of San Marcos in Lima, where Fray Domingo de 

Santo Tomás contributed significantly. 

Fray Domingo's advocacy for native rights, his scholarly work, and his role in Peru's 

early evangelization and education efforts are examined in detail. His contributions laid the 

groundwork for subsequent Quechua studies and the integration of this language into broader 

cultural and academic discourses. The chapter also delves into the historical richness of the 

Vocabulary and Grammar of Quechua, prepared by Fray Domingo. 

The chapter then discusses the broader implications of linguistic heritage, particularly in 

the manifestations of non-material cultural heritage that have survived for centuries, with their 

deep-rooted traditions and significance. It illustrates the enduring nature of cultural expressions 

tied to the Quechua language and heritage. 

 
1 Michael Tomlan, (2021), class lecture for "CRP 5600 - Documentation for Preservation," Ithaca, NY. 



7 
 

Furthermore, the chapter addresses the development of urbanism in Peru, emphasizing 

the importance of considering both material and non-material cultural factors. It highlights the 

research of scholars who challenge conventional urban models and advocate for a more 

comprehensive understanding of Andean urbanism. 

The current legal context in Peru is also introduced, focusing on the Ministry of Culture 

and its role in preserving and promoting cultural heritage. The chapter underscores the 

participatory process in declaring intangible cultural heritage and the significance of this 

recognition for empowering communities and fostering cultural continuity. The chapter connects 

the preservation of cultural heritage with broader themes of sustainable development and 

community well-being. It draws on the works of various scholars to support how cultural 

heritage can contribute to these goals. 

1.1. The Language of Peru.   

New insights in the Andes have uncovered that the Inkas could document their economic, 

social, environmental, and cultural life using a unique “Quippo”2 system with “twisted and 

colored cords”3 of different kinds of animal fabrics that “can encode logo syllabic texts. As such, 

they represent the extraordinarily sophisticated communication system”4 as depicted in Figure 1. 

According to the Quechua or Quichua language documented by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás 

in 1560, “Quippo”5 means “nudo como quiera,” which translated to English means “knot as you 

want” but also may be translated as “knot whatever”; ‘quippo capa’ means “something full of 

knots”; additionally, the action words meaning “to knot” in the first person “quipponi” and the 

 
2 Fray Domingo, (1951), p. 174. 
3 Hyland, S., (2017), p. 418. 
4 Ibid. 
5 Fray Domingo, (1951) p. 174. 



8 
 

second person “quippongui.”6 This is an excellent instance of how Andean cultures documented 

their way of life. However, it is also clear that we are just learning about it, and we may never 

totally uncover this centennial system with invaluable data. 

 

 
 

Figure 1:  Inka´s Heritage Record System.  

Source:  ”Quipu” Collections, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.7 

 

On the opposite side of the same Andean coin, the first and most crucial instance of 

documented non-material Peruvian heritage made by the Spaniard conquers the "Runa-Simi," or 

the general language of the Inca or Cuzco, also known as Quechua, documented by Fray 

Domingo de Santos Tomás8 (Figure 2). Fray Domingo was part of the Dominican Order, a 

Roman Catholic religious group founded by Saint Dominic de Guzman, a Spanish priest, in the 

 
6 Ibid. 
7 UNMSM, (n.d.), n.p. 
8Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. who also refers to M. de Mendiburu, Historical-Biographical Dictionary of Peru, 

Lima, National Library of Peru, 1805-1885; R. Porras, “Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás founder of the University 

and discoverer of Quechua”, in El Comercio (Lima), May 12 and 14, 1955; E. Romero de Valle, Manual Dictionary 

of Peruvian Literature and Related Subjects, Lima, ed. National University of San Marcos, 1966; F. de Solano, 

Documents on Linguistic Policy in Latin America (1492-1800), Madrid, Superior Council of Scientific Research 

(CSIC), 1999; I. Pérez Fernández, Bartolomé de las Casas in Peru, Cuzco, Ed. CBC, 1988; R. Cerrón Palomino, 

Quechua Linguistics, Cuzco, Bartolomé de las Casas Center, 2003; R. Cerrón Palomino, “The stone where the owl 

landed. History of a name”, in Lexis (Journal of Linguistics and Literature), PUCP (2006). 



9 
 

first decade of the 1200s.9 The Dominicans are known for their dedication to intellectual 

endeavors; they rigorously study theology and philosophy to defend and clarify Church 

doctrines.10 The Dominicans' significant contribution to the Church and Western civilization was 

their emphasis on education. From its inception, the order set up schools, universities, and 

seminaries to educate its members and the laity.11  

Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás's advocacy for the Indians was based on recognizing the 

King's authority and rejecting the powers of the encomenderos.12 13 Once, in a conversation 

about the rights of Carlos I to the Kingdom of Naples, Oidor Pedro de Mercado de Peñalosa 

questioned the royal rights to the Indies in the presence of Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, 

asking, "Is the king a relative of Guaynacaba (Huayna Capac), or how does he have this land?."14 

His evangelizing work is precious as he was the first to study and disseminate knowledge about 

the languages of Peru among preachers.  His membership in the Dominican Order and academic 

competence gave him a prominent role in the early years of the University of San Marcos in the 

16th century.15 He was responsible for teaching the first courses at the General Studies of the 

Novitiate and later at the University of San Marcos. Archbishop Loayza ordered him to register 

and assess the indigenous tribute, earning the enmity of the encomenderos.16 

 
9 Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. 
10 Ibid. 
11 Ibid. 
12 Ibid. 
13 According to López et al. (2014) the encomienda in Latin America is presented as the heir to a medieval European 

tradition of the cession of land in exchange for protection and defense. The American version differed in that the 

encomendero did not receive land but Indians who worked for him. 
14 Ibid. 
15 Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. 
16 Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. also mentions that Fray Santo Tomas earned a doctorate at the University of San 

Marcos in Lima, where he taught Rhetoric, Grammar, Arts, and Theology. In the early years of the conquest, he 

participated in founding convents, teaching the Indians, and pacifying civil wars among the conquistadors. In 1545, 

he was the prior of his convent in Lima and a visitor to the province in 1551. In 1553, he was a general preacher and 

Theology reader. In 1551, the general of the Dominican Order appointed him as vicar general. 



10 
 

He belongs to the group of Las Casas Dominicans who not only denounced and condemned 

encomenderos abuse against the native people but also taught them to defend themselves with 

the legal mechanisms of the time through the preparation of memorials and legal advice in 

trials.17 On July 19, 1559, the native chiefs gathered in the City of the Kings and appointed 

Father Las Casas (in Spain), Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás (in Peru), and Fray Alonso Méndez 

as procurators to counteract a Memorial of the Peruvian encomenderos, who offered Philip II 

seven or nine million ducats for the perpetuity of the encomienda.18  

Father Las Casas and Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, representing the native chiefs of Peru, 

offered two million more than the encomenderos to prevent the perpetuity from being granted 

because both parties knew they could not pay the millions offered to gain time and the King's 

favor,19 which would have meant a form of feudalism within an "organicist theory" of society; in 

a memorial of the encomenderos, it was stated that they were the bones sustaining the republic or 

community, meaning the dominant group.20  

The coordination of the native chiefs' counteroffer in Lima was achieved in the first personal 

meeting between Father Las Casas and Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás in 1556.  Furthermore, 

Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás obtained a plenary jubilee from Pope Paul IV for the Hospital of 

Santa Ana at the request of Archbishop Loayza.21 

Historian Raúl Porras Barrenechea believes that Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás's Grammar 

gathers the first knowledge of the Peruvian native language, which until then had been compiled 

 
17 Ibid. 
18 Ibid. 
19 Ibid. 
20 Ibid. 
21 Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. 



11 
 

by the Spaniards in a disorganized manner.22 This data increased progressively as his 

evangelizing work expanded, traveling to Cuzco and along the Peruvian coast.23 

The historical richness of the vocabulary lies in its preparation during a period close to the 

Inca era; its pages precisely contain the oldest Inca institutions, the names of their administrators, 

and their specific functions.24 Raúl Porras Barrenechea also considers Fray Domingo de Santo 

Tomás the pioneer of Quechua studies, naming Runa Simi or the General Inca Language.25 

González Holguín used the term Quechua, referencing Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, and then 

in 1616, Alonso de Huerta also used the term Quechua. Later, republican Quechua scholars 

adopted this traditional name from Pacheco Zegarra, who popularized it in the 19th century.26 

Other authors joined Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás in the early studies of native languages; for 

instance, Fray Benito de Jarandia worked on the Yunga language and the language of the 

Chicama Natives, Fray Pedro de Aparicio composed a treatise on the Chimú language, and priest 

Roque de Cejuela wrote a Catechism in the Yunga and Spanish languages of Peru before 1585.27 

In the 16th century, a debate began on the linguistic policy in catechesis because some advocated 

for castellanization, arguing the success of the Roman Empire in imposing Latin.28 Those of this 

opinion recalled Antonio de Nebrija's text in his Grammar: "Language goes with the Empire." 

Other Quechua scholars opted for bilingualism. By publishing Grammatica and Lexicon, Fray 

Domingo de Santo Tomás chose Quechua without disregarding Spanish.29 Quechuism, which 

still endures in Peru, is inherited from Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás's work (Figure 2).  

 
22 Ibid. 
23 Ibid. 
24 Ibid. 
25 Ibid. 
26 Ibid. 
27 Ibid. 
28 Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. 
29 Ibid. 



12 
 

 
 

Figure 2: First Documented Quechua-Spanish Dictionary. 

Source:  Coloma (2003) 

 

Thus, various initiatives made Quechua the Church's official language.  Even Philip II 

intervened in the debate, ordering that they be evangelized in their language.30 In this general 

context, language chairs were created at the universities of Mexico and Lima. As a reaction to 

Tupac Amaru II's revolution, visitor Antonio de Areche closed the chair at San Marcos (1784); it 

was reopened in 1936.31 Linguist Rodolfo Cerron Palomino believes that Quechua originated 

mainly on the coast, and this variety was the one the Incas officialized; Cuzco Quechua is a later 

development of the Quinchay Suyo variant with Aymara influence.32 That research has led him 

 
30 Ibid. 
31 Soto Villanueva, Y., (n.d.), n.p. 
32 Ibid. 



13 
 

to suggest that the Quechua studied by Domingo de Santo Tomás disappeared by the mid-17th 

century (Figure 3); So, the only testimony of Quinchay Suyo is the Lexicon and Grammar.33 

 
   

Figure 3: Grammar, Present Tense, Indicative form. Quechua-Spanish 

                                                 Source: Soto Villanueva, Y. (n.d.), n.p. 

 

Through his scholarship, not only did Fray Domingo de Santos Tomás initiate the study of 

Quechua linguistics, but the twentieth-century historian and diplomat Raul Porras Barrenechea 

also highlighted how this documentation played a pivotal role in fostering the development of a 

mestizo culture and integrating Quechua culture into broader global development discourse.34  

Looking into one of the documented traditions that has survived thanks to the Runa-Simi, the 

Anonymous Vocabulary of Quechua, first published in 1586 by Antonio Ricardo, without giving 

much credit to the excellent documentation made by Fray Domingo,35 references the "Huacón," 

meaning mask or masked person.36 Numerous references allow us to explain that Huacón is the 

 
33 Ibid. 
34 Coloma, (2003), p.1. 
35 Blas, (2019), n.p. “In this section, although one would expect an elementary treatment of the figure of Friar 

Domingo de Santo Tomás, the first lexicographer and grammarian of Quechua, the author barely dedicates a general 

mention to his work.” 
36 Ricardo, (1586), p. xliii. 



14 
 

central character of the Huaconada dance: “Only men of upright conduct and impeccable moral 

character can attain the status of Huacón.”37  

 
 

Figure 4: La Huaconada Dance 

                         Source: Ministry of Culture – Peru. 

 

More importantly, the “Huaconada de Mito” is one of the oldest non-material heritage 

manifestations that survives in Peru because the dance is strictly and traditionally passed down 

from father to son, so the dresses and masks are inherited; Furthermore, sufficient reports in the 

chronicles and other colonial documents establish its pre-Inca origin.38 “The masks are worn by 

the ‘Huacones de Mito' when they traditionally dance every year, the first days of January on the 

occasion of the New Year festivities in Mito, located on the right bank of the Mantaro Valley, a 

few kilometers from Huancayo.”39 Father José de Acosta, in his Natural and Moral History of 

 
37 Coloma, (2004), p.88. Dr. Coloma, Honoris Causa, was, among other positions, Director of Culture for the 

Provincial Council of Lima, Director of the Museum of Italian Art and the National Museum of History, and 

Director General of the National Center for Cultural Information. He is President of the Latin American Institute of 

Culture and Development, which he founded. 
38 Coloma, (2004), p.87. 
39 Coloma, (2004), p. 88. 



15 
 

the Indies, says that in Ancient Peru, there were dances of masked men called Huacón, and the 

masks and their gestures were of the pure devil.40 

In the year 1662, the chief prosecutor of the archbishop of the Corregimiento of Cajabamba, 

Agustín Capcha, begged his superiors to entrust the destruction of the elements (costumes and 

instruments) with which the Indians had the habit of starting the Guaconada dance.41 On festival 

days, "in an activity called ‘Huacón’ with some of the ugliest masks you can see,"42 each Huacón 

is born to wear the most fabulous mask to impress.43 The dancer builds it out of wood, giving it 

the features and gestures that reveal his personality and condition his movements when he 

dances.44 

As an effect of one of the most representative instances of a millennial non-material heritage, 

Figure 4 depicts the socio-economic and cultural dynamic that takes place each time the 

Huacones perform; at the end of the street, you can appreciate a local marketplace that the 

community that put in place reappropriating the street, turning it into a pedestrian cultural path to 

the core of the small Adobe town.  

1.2. Andean Urbanism. 

Urbanism development in Peru requires reconsidering multiple variables, including 

nonmaterial and material cultural factors. The Polish archaeologist and Professor at the Pontifical 

Catholic University of Peru, Makowski Krzysztof, emphasizes the importance of collective 

memory and its materialization by constructing sacred, ceremonial, and communal spaces.  

Many of these activities, particularly the construction, renovation, and decoration of rooms and 

 
40 Coloma, (2004), p.88. 
41 Ibid. 
42 Coloma, (2004), p. 89.   
43 Coloma, (2004), p. 22. 
44 Ibid. 



16 
 

funeral rites, were intended to create and perpetuate the community's memory, for instance, the 

practices of rebuilding and renovating homes and the cult of the skulls of ancestors.45 

Makowski Krzysztof challenges conventional urban-model design, especially those derived 

from colonialism and Western urbanism concepts.46 Krzysztof critiques the applicability of this 

model to the Andean context by proposing a more comprehensive understanding through the 

reinterpretation of the idea of urban development processes,47 examining the interconnection of 

social, cultural, economic, and environmental systems and the underlying causes of these 

processes.  It is essential to highlight that Krzysztof emphasizes the need to understand 

settlement systems in pre-Hispanic Peru in their context. He judges the universal validity of 

evolutionary theories, questioning the linear stages of development and the classification of 

societies into "civilized" and "non-civilized."48 This underscores the original aspects of Andean 

urbanism; similarly, my proposal emphasizes the unique characteristics of my Andean country, 

suggesting that urbanism in this region cannot be understood through a single development 

pattern but requires consideration of multiple variables, specifically cultural ones. 

Makowski argues that, for instance, the architecture and art in settlements like Çatal Hüyük 

were more about supporting collective memory and religion than indicating social hierarchies.49 

His thesis rests on the importance of collective memory materialized in communal and 

agricultural rather than residential areas, providing “circular” spaces for manifesting their 

rituals,50 traditions, music, dances, and sharing knowledge.  

 

 
45 Krzysztof, (2016), p.36. 
46 Krzysztof, (2016), p.16. 
47 Ibid. 
48 Krzysztof, (2016), p.34. 
49 Krzysztof, (2016), p. 32. 
50 Krzysztof, (2016), p. 270. 



17 
 

1.3. The Current Legal Context 

The current legal context of Peru rests on the Constitution adopted in 1979, with an elected 

president and nineteen ministers. The Ministry of Culture is responsible for tangible and 

intangible cultural heritage documentation.51 The framework is spelled out in the “General Law 

for the Protection of the Cultural Heritage of the Nation.”52  This thesis emphasizes the 

importance of intangible cultural heritage, details the process of declaring intangible cultural 

heritage as National Cultural Heritage, and highlights the significance of this recognition. 

The participatory process in declaring intangible cultural heritage (ICH), where communities 

play a central role, is crucial under the “Law on the Right to Prior Consultation to Indigenous or 

Native Peoples.”53 Soledad Mujica Bayly, former director of Intangible Heritage in the Vice 

Ministry of Cultural Heritage in the Ministry of Culture, outlined the benefits of declaring ICH, 

including empowerment, official recognition, and establishing an inventory.54  

Coloma discusses the role of the National Institute of Culture in promoting cultural 

expression, conserving heritage, and protecting intellectual property.55 Institutional roles 

indirectly address the outcomes of cultural preservation efforts on the local economy and 

community well-being.56  

Luis A. Flores, an archaeologist, played a significant role in this context. Former Director of 

the International Research Center at Chavin de Huantar, which falls under the Ministry of 

Culture, reviews the historical context, political motivations, and institutional changes associated 

 
51 Ministry of Culture, (2017). Guide on declarations of expressions of intangible cultural heritage as Cultural 

Heritage of the Nation.  
52 Congreso de la República del Perú, (1985, 2004 and 2011). 
53 Ministry of Culture, (2023). Declarations of the Cultural Heritage of the Nation. 
54 Mujica Bayly, Soledad, (n.d.), “Declarations as Cultural Heritage of the Nation, participatory inventory of 

intangible cultural heritage. 
55 Centro Nacional de Información Cultural, Instituto Nacional de Cultura, & Coloma Porcari, C., (2001). The 

National Institute of Culture of Peru - Organization and Functions 1971-2001. 
56 Ibid. 



18 
 

with creating the Ministry of Culture in Peru.57 Flores shows how the cultural policies of the 

Peruvian state affected the Ministry of Culture, which was designed to streamline and coordinate 

these policies.58 Flores also outlines the challenges and changes in cultural policies over the 

years, emphasizing the need for a more comprehensive and coordinated approach to cultural 

management.59  

Following those and other sources, the following chapters trace the evolution of Peru's legal 

authority and regulatory procedures for inventorying and investigating its economic, social, and 

cultural benefits, aligning with the broader goals of heritage preservation and the principles of 

sustainable communities. In the next chapter, we will consider the cultural policies in Peru and 

the societal aspects associated with creating the Ministry of Culture. 

1.4. Redefining the Geography and Natural History 

Many scholars have acknowledged Peru's diverse geography. This includes Javier Pulgar-

Vidal, an Emeritus Professor of Geography at the National University of San Marcos in Lima, 

Peru. His significant contributions include dividing.60 His work, Geografía del Perú,61 

demonstrates the country's diverse geography, emphasizing the importance of considering 

various factors such as climate, terrain, vegetation, and human activities in understanding the 

Peruvian regions.62  

The Spanish colonial division of Peru was in three primary regions (Coast, Highlands, and 

Jungle). Pulgar-Vidal introduces an “Eight Natural Regions” thesis, challenging the traditional 

division and proposing a more comprehensive approach.63 He recognizes the importance of 

 
57 Flores, (2021). 
58 Ibid. 
59 Ibid. 
60 Pulgar-Vidal, Javier. (2014) Geography of Peru. The eight natural regions, 12th ed. 
61 Ibid. 
62 Ibid. 
63 Ibid. 

https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2481909M/Geografi%CC%81a_del_Peru%CC%81
https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2481909M/Geografi%CC%81a_del_Peru%CC%81


19 
 

native languages and knowledge in understanding Peru's geography and highlights how native 

communities have a long history of interacting with and understanding their environment.64 

Pulgar-Vidal adopts an interdisciplinary approach by considering socio-economic factors, 

heritage preservation, and geographical characteristics. This holistic approach is crucial for 

gaining comprehensive insights into the complex relationships explored later in my models. 

 

 
 

              Figure 5: Eight-Natural Region Thesis-Peruvian Andes 

                            Source: Pulgar-Vidal Thesis, (1987).65 

 

1.5. Culture and Sustainable Communities 

Firstly, Mumford, in 1937, argued that a city is a theater where the collective drama is 

performed with systemic connections between the natural environment and intangible factors, 

such as beliefs and values, that go further than just economic, tangibility, or materialism.66 

Nisbett (2003) also pointed out that community thoughts are super connected to their geography 

in time and space; in that way, each culture's natural scape, architecture, and city layout varies 

 
64 Pulgar-Vidal, Javier, (1987) Geography of Peru. The eight natural regions, 12th ed. 
65 Foto ©: https://www.inkaico.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Las-8-regiones-e1456854412387.jpg  
66 Mumford, (1937), p.92. 

https://www.inkaico.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Las-8-regiones-e1456854412387.jpg


20 
 

depending on the community’s beliefs and values, for instance, American culture differ from 

“Traditional Chinese and Japanese culture which emphasized literature, the arts, and music”.67  

Secondly, there is an urgent need to analyze cultural-resource data due to an unavoidable 

debate about how culture relates to sustainability and how culture helps urbanists, policy, and 

decision-makers better understand complex urban systems while learning and coproducing 

knowledge68 in a multilevel governance system.69 To face complex issues such as climate 

change, in a holistic interweaving framework is necessary the interaction of community, private 

and public stakeholders who deal with a system that encourages hierarchical and horizontal 

relationships outside of “functional and geographic silos.”70 

Even though sustainable development has been widely embraced internationally since the 

1972 ratification of the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural 

Treasures,71 the UN did not explicitly release a Cultural or Heritage Goal among the seventeen 

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). However, the “fourth specific target of SDG11 is to 

strengthen “efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage."72 

However, a preliminary study on target 11.4 shows data collection and interpretation issues 

leading to “such problems as the growing imbalance between development and conservation, 

urban expansion and environmental degradation.”73  

Furthermore, in 2017, the United States left the United Nations Educational Scientific and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for the second time after charging the group with having "anti-

Israel bias"; nonetheless, the animosity was already in motion in 2011 when President Obama 

 
67 Nisbett, (2003), p.189. 
68 Homsy, (2013). 
69 Homsy, (2015); Homsy, (2019a); Homsy, (2019b); Homsy, (2019c); Homsy, (2019d); Homsy, (2019e) 
70 Homsy, (2016), p.573.  
71 Wang et al., (2018). 
72 UN, (2016). 
73 Wang et al., (2018), p.23. 



21 
 

stopped paying the organization’s dues in opposition to the UN body's choice to grant Palestine 

full membership.74 The first occasion was in 1984 when then-President Ronald Reagan accused 

UNESCO of corruption and ideological prejudice against the Soviet Union based on "extraneous 

politics" and "endemic antipathy against the institutions of a free society."75 Furthermore, Bronin 

& Byrne (2021) highlight that UNESCO nominations do not guarantee historic preservation as 

they require local protection and community awareness.76 

Finally, due to this lack of reliable cultural data at the local and international levels, 

sustainable communities’ principles in the policy-making analysis have been limited to equity, 

economic, and environmental (three E’s) pillars. However, the tendency to overlap the cultural 

system has been broadly discussed.77  

 
 

Figure 6: Culture In, For, and As Sustainability.  Source: Soini and Dessein, 2016, p.3 

 

In Figure 6, Soini and Dessein, 2016, present culture as a mandatory system to achieve the 

other three pillars; their study presents three different frameworks: ‘culture in sustainability’ that 

separates the cultural system like the fourth pillar of sustainability; ‘culture for sustainability’ 

 
74 Harper, (2021) n.p. 
75 Ibid. 
76 Bronin & Byrne, (2021). 
77 Gražulevičiūtė, (2006); Duxbury et al. (2007); Duxbury et al. (2012); Soini and Dessein, (2016). 



22 
 

that emphasizes culture as a mediator of the systems; finally, ‘culture as sustainability’ that puts 

the cultural system as the supra system involving the other three ones.78 Thus, policymakers and 

urban planners must be flexible and creative in using data to implement their policy proposals 

since it is well-documented how heritage preservation ensures the right to sustainable prosperity 

and the integration of culture within sustainability dialogues around environmental issues linked 

to economic and socio-equity factors. 

Data and indicators are essential to measuring sustainability; however, Philips (2005) 

highlights those indicators “serve as proxy or surrogate measures. They often cannot directly 

measure the phenomenon of interest, or even if they do, they cannot establish causality. This 

means interpreters and decision-makers should be careful and not take indicators too literally. 

They must remember that indicators provide a pragmatic shortcut to dealing with complexity.”79  

Phillips's work on using the arts for community economic development and Hawkes's 

research on the importance of cultural planning to community viability offer more insights to this 

research. Hawkes, in 2001, emphasized integrating cultural context into planning processes to 

foster healthier and more sustainable communities.80 In this context, Peru's Declarations of 

Intangible Cultural Heritage (DICH) promotes cultural development, shaping community 

identity and attracting residents, businesses, and visitors. Additionally, Runnalls, in 2007 (see 

Figure 7), pointed out that “the four dimensions of community sustainability are interrelated and 

overlap, with the cultural dimension being foundational to a whole-systems approach to 

community viability. Thus, community sustainability is possible if economic viability, social 

 
78 Soini and Dessein, (2016), p.3 
79 Phillips, (2005), Section II, “Choosing indicators”. 
80 Hawkes, J. (2001), p.1 



23 
 

equity, and environmental responsibility processes consider the values, aspirations, relationships, 

creativity, and diversity within any community.” 81 

 
    

Figure 7: A Holistic Systems Approach to Community Sustainability. 

                                                   Source: Runnalls, 2006, p.9. 

 

Duxbury et al. emphasize the importance of culture in sustainable development; their 

research on cultural policies provides a policy framework for understanding the role of cultural 

indicators in broader development strategies.82 This thesis extends this perspective, providing a 

model to examine the specific impact of intangible cultural heritage on poverty. Furthermore, 

Jeannotte's “tentative model” on the contribution of cultural capital to social cohesion83 aligns 

with my exploration of the socioeconomic factors associated with cultural indicators and their 

potential impact on poverty alleviation and well-being (see Figure 8).84 “Further multivariate 

analysis is required to isolate the key determinants within this overall pattern of behavior, but the 

 
81 Runnalls, (2007), p. 9. “All sectors are actively seeking to increase the economic strength of society.” p.9. 
82 Duxbury et al., (2007 and 2012). 
83 Jeannotte, M.S. (2003). p. 46.  
84 Jeannotte, M.S. (2003). p. 37-40. Also see OECD, (2001), p.4. 



24 
 

findings so far appear to confirm that there are collective benefits to investments in cultural 

capital and that some sort of “virtuous circle” is in play.”85 

 

 
   

Figure 8: Casual Links Between Social Cohesion and Social Outcomes. 
                                          Source :  Jeannotte, M.S. (2003). p. 47 

 

“A crucial feedback loop may exist between cultural capital and civil society/social capital 

that has not hitherto been acknowledged.”86 Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital is dynamic, 

relying heavily on agents' actions within fields that represent “a space of possibilities,” where 

agents’ socialization is shaped by objective relations rather than intersubjective ties, echoing 

principles of dynamic systems theory.87 

The involvement of multiple disciplines, such as archaeology, history, architecture, and 

urban studies, provides critical information about socioeconomic factors and identity. This 

interdisciplinary approach to understanding the relationships between cultural heritage and 

various aspects of development underscores the importance of historical examination. Canziani, 

 
85 Jeannotte, M.S., (2003), p. 46. 
86 Jeannotte, M.S., (2003), p. 47. 
87 According to Swingewood, (1998), p.94, 95. Cited by Jeannotte, M.S., (2003), p. 48 



25 
 

in 2012, acknowledged the role of heritage in shaping national identity and its potential 

contribution to growth, recognizing the challenge of finding solutions to contemporary problems 

with the general theme of territorial development.88 Furthermore, Lumbreras et al. (2000) 

presented the different points of view of archaeologists, historians, business people, and leaders 

of institutions committed to culture and tourism in Peru while gathering the works presented by 

experts and intellectuals at the Conversation on Cultural Heritage of Peru, organized by the 

Congress of the Republic.89 Similarly, my study targets a broad audience, including 

policymakers, local communities, researchers, and students who contribute to the dissemination 

of knowledge on heritage preservation. 

Conclusion 

Recognizing non-material heritage in Peru marks a significant milestone in preserving 

and integrating Quechua culture into broader historical and cultural discourse. Fray Domingo's 

efforts in documenting Quechua, as well as his advocacy for the rights of native peoples, 

highlight the critical role of language in cultural preservation and the promotion of social justice. 

His scholarly work initiated the formal study of Quechua linguistics and laid the groundwork for 

developing a mestizo culture, bridging native and global perspectives. The practices, documented 

and studied over centuries, underscore the importance of community involvement and the 

transmission of cultural knowledge across generations. Modern scholarship, including the works 

of Makowski Krzysztof and Javier Pulgar-Vidal, further enriches our understanding of Peru's 

unique cultural and geographical landscape. Their interdisciplinary approaches challenge 

 
88 Canziani, J. (2012), p.20, 21.  
89 See Appendix 3: Lumbreras, the famous Peruvian archaeologist and anthropologist, is considered the father of 

"social archaeology" in Peru, was the Director of the Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology and President of 

the Museum of the Nation.  



26 
 

conventional models and advocate for a comprehensive understanding of Andean urbanism and 

regional diversity. This holistic view is crucial for appreciating the complex interplay between 

cultural, social, and environmental factors in the development of sustainable communities. The 

current legal and institutional frameworks in Peru, as outlined by scholars like Soledad Mujica 

Bayly and Luis Flores, emphasize the importance of participatory processes and the role of 

cultural policies in empowering communities and preserving heritage. These frameworks are 

essential for fostering cultural development and ensuring that intangible cultural heritage 

contributes to broader social sustainable goals. Cultural elements promote social cohesion, 

economic equity, and environmental sustainability. The works of Phillips, Runnalls, and others 

highlight the importance of cultural planning and community engagement in achieving these 

objectives. Their insights align with the broader goals of heritage preservation, emphasizing the 

need for a multidisciplinary approach and the inclusion of cultural variables in sustainable 

development strategies. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



27 
 

CHAPTER II:  THE NATIONAL HERITAGE INSTITUTIONS 

“In Peru, education is not resolved through methods but through cultural knowledge.”90 

Introduction 

Heritage management in Peru is intricately linked to the country's evolving political and 

administrative landscape. To grasp how heritage is treated, it is crucial to delve into the national-

level government agencies involved in its preservation and promotion. The central government, 

comprising executive, legislative, and judicial branches, significantly influences heritage 

management, with each branch's involvement subject to political shifts and changes over time. 

The National Institute of Culture (INC) has played a pivotal role in this domain.  

Established by Supreme Decree No. 18799 on March 9, 1971, the INC emerged as a 

decentralized public entity under the Ministry of Education. This marked a significant transition 

from its predecessor, the Directorate of Artistic Education and Cultural Extension, created by 

Law No. 9359 (Organic Law of Public Education) on April 1, 1941, during President Manuel 

Prado's administration. The Directorate's mission was to oversee fine arts teaching and promote 

cultural activities, including managing the National School of Fine Arts, the National Academy 

of Music Alcedo, the National Symphony Orchestra, national museums, and libraries. 

In its early years, the Directorate coordinated with various cultural and historical 

preservation bodies, such as the now-defunct National Archaeology Board, the Council for the 

Conservation and Restoration of Historic Monuments, and the Film Censorship Board. It 

promoted art exhibitions, music performances, and the preservation of native arts, contributing to 

 
90 Ministry of Education of Peru, National School of Music and Folk Dance, 1965, pp.18 (Mimeograph) Conference. 

José María Arguedas at the National School of Music and Folk Dance in 1965. Arguedas was a Peruvian writer, 

poet, professor, and anthropologist. In 1963, he was appointed professor at the Faculty of Letters at UNMSM and 

director of the House of Culture of Peru, a position he resigned from the following year as a gesture of solidarity 

with the president of the National Culture Commission. 



28 
 

Peru's rich cultural tapestry. However, the Directorate's efforts to document and preserve 

archaeological specimens, pre-Columbian and colonial monuments, historical and artistic 

objects, and manuscripts were not fully realized. 

The INC's organizational structure evolved, and by 1962, it comprised five sections: Fine 

Arts, National Museums and Monuments, Editorial and National and Popular Libraries, 

Educational Broadcasting and Cinema, and School Patronages. The establishment of the House 

of Culture of Peru by Supreme Decree No. 48 in 1962, later perfected by Decree-Law No. 14479 

in 1963, marked another milestone in cultural administration. However, this entity was dissolved 

upon creating the INC in 1971, emphasizing the need to implement corrective measures to 

protect Peru's cultural heritage amid increasing threats. 

In 2001, the INC celebrated its thirtieth anniversary, reflecting on its predecessors' legacy 

in the Directorate of Artistic Education and Cultural Extension. By then, the Organizational and 

Functional Regulations of the INC, approved by Supreme Decree No. 027-2001-ED on April 20, 

2001, had established it as a legally recognized decentralized public entity with technical, 

administrative, economic, and financial autonomy. The INC became the central governing body 

for cultural organizations, including the Decentralized Bodies (Departmental Cultural 

Directorates), responsible for promoting and developing Peru's cultural expressions and 

preserving its cultural heritage. 

The political context surrounding cultural affairs shifted significantly with the creation of 

the Ministry of Culture on July 21, 2010, during the second government of Alan García Pérez, 

under Law No. 29565. This new ministry facilitated the implementation of cultural policies, 

requiring reorganizing existing cultural institutions and formulating comprehensive policies. 

Former Director Flores explained that the establishment of the ministry not only modified the 



29 
 

composition of other ministerial portfolios but also elevated the institutionalization level of the 

cultural sector, addressing long-standing institutional needs and administrative obligations 

dictated by the Organic Law of the Executive Power. The creation of the Ministry of Culture was 

well-received by academic, technical, and cultural management groups, reflecting a broader 

societal consensus. For instance, a 2008 survey of 500 people in Lima revealed that 69% 

approved the measure to create the Ministry of Culture, with significant support from political 

actors in both the Executive and Legislative branches. 

The emergence of the Ministry of Culture introduced new dynamics for cultural 

institutions in Peru. It marked a departure from traditional state institutions established in the 

early decades of the Republic, such as the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, the Interior, Defense, 

and Economy and Finance. The political negotiation process between 2008 and 2010, involving 

the Executive and Legislative branches, underscored the need for greater institutionalization of 

the state's cultural sector. The second government of Alan García, generally characterized as 

neoliberal, recognized the necessity of expanding the state's body in 2010 by creating the 

Ministry of Culture. 

2.1. The Background of the National Institute of Culture (INC). 

When the National Institute of Culture (INC) celebrated its thirtieth anniversary in 2001, 

the senior staff wanted to remember the work of their predecessors in the famous Directorate of 

Artistic Education and Cultural Extension.91 This agency was created by Law No. 9359 (Organic 

Law of Public Education), promulgated by President Manuel Prado on April 1, 1941.92 This 

Directorate organized and oversaw the teaching of Fine Arts and promoted culture. It was 

responsible for the National School of Fine Arts, the National Academy of Music Alcedo, the 

 
91 Coloma, César, and Clide Valladolid, (2001), p.1. 
92 Ibid. 



30 
 

National Symphony Orchestra, national museums, and national libraries.93 It also coordinated 

with the now-defunct National Archaeology Board, Council for the Conservation and 

Restoration of Historic Monuments, Council for Music Extension, and Film Censorship Board.  

Furthermore, the Directorate promoted the presentation of art exhibitions and music 

performances, primarily for the public.94 The Directorate was also tasked with promoting the 

useful arts of the native people and cooperating in collecting and preserving objects related to 

Peruvian history and art in museums. It encouraged folkloric and bibliographic studies and 

safeguarded the preservation of national folklore.95  

Finally, something that was not fully realized was preserving records of archaeological 

specimens, pre-Columbian and colonial monuments, historical and artistic objects, and historical 

manuscripts, whether handwritten or printed.96 In 1941, the agency consisted of five sections: 

Fine Arts, National Museums and Monuments, Editorial and National and Popular Libraries, 

Educational Broadcasting and Cinema, and School Patronages; by Supreme Decree No. 48, 

dated August 24, 1962 (perfected by Decree-Law No. 14479, dated June 10, 1963), the National 

Commission for Culture was created, establishing the House of Culture of Peru.97 The House 

was dissolved upon creating the National Institute of Culture (Supreme Decree No. 18799 dated 

March 9, 1971) as a decentralized public entity under the Ministry of Education.98 “In these 

times when our cultural heritage is being plundered and destroyed, it is indispensable to 

implement corrective measures and call upon the citizenry to defend and preserve its entire 

cultural heritage.”99 

 
93Coloma, César, and Clide Valladolid, (2001), p.1 
94 Ibid. 
95 Coloma, César, and Clide Valladolid, (2001), p.2. 
96 Ibid. 
97 Ibid. 
98 Ibid. 
99 “El Comercio”, (March, Monday 26th, 2001), p. a-14. Cited by: Coloma, et al. (2001), p.4. 



31 
 

The Organizational and Functional Regulations of the INC, approved by Supreme Decree 

No. 027-2OO1-ED dated April 20, 2001, established it as a decentralized public entity, legally 

recognized as an internal public law entity, with technical, administrative, economic, and 

financial autonomy.100 The INC is the central governing body for all the organizations that 

comprise its organizational structure, including the Decentralized Bodies (Departmental Cultural 

Directorates).101 It carries out its activities at the national level as the leading organization 

responsible for promoting and developing the cultural expressions of the country, as well as the 

conservation, preservation, restoration, research, dissemination, and promotion of the cultural 

heritage.102  

2.2. The Change from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of Culture 

Although the INC was established in the Ministry of Education, the political context shifted, 

and responsibility for all cultural affairs changed. The Ministry of Culture was created on July 

21, 2010, during the second government of Alan García Pérez, under Law No. 29565.103 Since 

then, this entity has systematically facilitated the implementation of cultural policies in Peru.104 

To achieve this, not only did the cultural policies of the Peruvian state have to be altered, but 

also, in parallel with the reformulation of these policies, existing cultural organizations were 

reorganized so that the new ministry outlined comprehensive cultural policies for the entities 

under its direction.105 

Former Director Flores explained that the establishment of this ministry not only modified 

the composition of other ministerial portfolios but also changed the cultural sector's 

 
100 Coloma, César, and Clide Valladolid, (2001), p.7. 
101 Ibid. 
102 Ibid. 
103 Flores, (2022), p.4. 
104 Ibid. 
105 Ibid. 



32 
 

institutionalization level. This alteration was significant because Peru has not been inclined to 

view progress in institutionalization and cultural policy as a path to the desired development.106 

The initiative of former President García was framed in the context of a few political attempts to 

strengthen cultural institutions.107 Peru had few political leaders to back a limited number of 

projects, and most prior efforts were unsuccessful.108 The discussion arose among academic, 

technical, and cultural management groups; Therefore, the proposal to create the Ministry of 

Culture was well-received in these circles and had sufficient support from a significant portion of 

the population.109 More importantly, for legal purposes, the political actors of the time leading 

the country in the Executive and the Legislative branches supported the changes.110  

For example, in 2008, the results of a survey of 500 people in Lima on aspects of the political 

situation at the time. Regarding the proposal of former President García to create a Ministry of 

Culture, when asked, "Do you approve or disapprove of the project to create the Ministry of 

Culture?" 69% approved the measure, 21% disapproved, and 10% did not specify. Additionally, 

it is essential to note that in response to the question, "What do you think is more convenient for 

the country?" 32% thought that a ministry should be created that includes the tourism and culture 

sectors; 4% believed that both ministries should be created separately; 15% felt that neither 

should be created; 13% thought that only the Ministry of Culture should be created; 7% thought 

that only the Ministry of Tourism should be created, and 9% did not specify.111  

The citizen survey results were reflected in the positions of the Legislative branch members 

between 2008 and 2010.112 When analyzing the votes and debates on the bill to create the 

 
106 Flores, (2022), p.4. 
107 Flores, (2022), p.5. 
108 Ibid. 
109 Ibid. 
110 Ibid. 
111 Ipsos APOYO (2008, August 18). A look back at 2011.; Cited by Flores, (2020), p.5. 
112 Flores, (2022), p.5. 



33 
 

Ministry of Culture, it is evident that a specific sector of former Congressional members 

proposed that the ministry could merge the cultural branch with tourism, science, or 

technology.113 However, this was a minority that could not change the initial direction of the 

project, which sought a ministry of culture and, in general terms, was supported by the majority 

of political groups in the Legislative branch.114 

The Ministry of Culture created new dynamics for cultural institutions in the Andean 

country, making it an event whose causes need to be traced.  Inevitably, its appearance at the 

beginning of the 21st century was accompanied by internal and external conditions that explain 

its current presence in the state apparatus—conditions associated with the chronological location 

of this ministry in Peruvian affairs.115 Unlike state institutions created in the early decades of the 

Republic, now known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of the Interior, the 

Ministry of Defense, and the Ministry of Economy and Finance, the Ministry of Culture emerged 

in 2010.116  

Examining the political actors of the Executive and the Legislative branches between 2008 

and 2010 provides insights into the political negotiation.117 The original Executive branch 

proposal could not be approved without going through modifications requested by the opposition 

to secure a favorable vote in the Legislative branch.118 The need for greater institutionalization of 

the state's cultural sector was shared and influenced by administrative reforms such as the 

Organic Law of the Executive Power.119 This legislation stated that to create a ministry that 

would group and direct the various cultural entities of the state, Peruvian society needs to be 

 
113 Flores, (2022), p.5. 
114 Ibid. 
115 Flores, (2022), p.6. 
116 Flores, (2022), p.7. 
117 Ibid. 
118 Ibid. 
119 Congreso de la República del Perú, (1985). 



34 
 

considered from economic, commercial, and cultural perspectives.120 Given this premise, the 

nationalist bloc, the main opposition bloc, managed to negotiate and include the Vice Ministry of 

Interculturality.121 This inclusion modified the initial organizational chart proposed by the 

Executive branch and defended by the Aprista bloc, who favored a ministry responsible only for 

cultural industries and not for the intercultural entities of the Peruvian state.122 However, they did 

not oppose the condition set by the nationalist bloc because they considered the creation of the 

Ministry of Culture indispensable due to institutional needs and administrative obligations 

dictated by the Organic Law of the Executive Power.123  

Flores's work provides a study on state restructuring linked to the Ministry of Culture, which, 

unlike approaches to other state entities and their administrative or management reforms, has not 

received comprehensive academic attention.124 Flores makes an effort to understand to what 

extent the second government of García, generally characterized as neoliberal, found the need to 

expand the body of the State through the creation of the Ministry of Culture.125 Flores 

interviewed former directors of the cultural sector organizations, including Cecilia Bákula (the 

last director of the National Institute of Culture), Gustavo Zambrano (the former director of the 

National Institute for the Development of Andean, Amazonian, and Afro-Peruvian Peoples - 

INDEPA, 2011), Juan Fernández Valle (the former director of the Regional Directorate of 

Culture of Ayacucho of the National Institute of Culture, 2010), and Santiago Alfaro (the former 

 
120 Flores, (2022), p.7. 
121 Flores, (2022), p.8. 
122 Ibid. 
123 Flores, (2022), p.8. 
124 Ames, (2014); Chumacero, (2012); Leiva, (2017); and Vizcarra, (2019): cited by Flores, (2022), p.8. 
125 Flores’s research methodology included primary and secondary sources. The primary sources consist of semi-

structured interviews with seven informants that focus on the context in which the Ministry of Culture. The 

interviews did not maintain a uniform model for all interviewees. Indeed, a division into two interview models was 

proposed:  for former directors of cultural sector organizations and a former legislative official in the parliamentary 

period of 2009-2010. Flores interviewed a former legislative official in the parliamentary period of 2009-2010, 

Vicente Otta Rivera (former advisor to the Commission on Education, Science, Technology, Culture, Cultural 

Heritage, Youth, and Sports). 



35 
 

director of Cultural Industries and Arts at the Ministry of Culture, 2020).126 Flores used 

secondary sources, including articles and academic books related to state administrative reform, 

cultural policies of the Peruvian state, relations between the Executive and the Legislative 

branches, interculturalism, multiculturalism, and the Peruvian sociopolitical process.127 

Secondly, Flores used more administrative and documentary texts, generally grouping 

minutes of Cabinet meetings during the second government of Alan García reports from the 

Commission on Education, Science, Technology, Culture, Cultural Heritage, Youth, and Sports 

in the annual periods before the creation of the Ministry of Culture; records of parliamentary 

votes on bills for the creation of the Ministry of Culture; and reports of sessions in the Congress 

Plenary and the Permanent Commission that debated the creation of the Ministry of Culture.128 

Flores highlights that reviewing such sources allowed an understanding of the motivations 

that mobilized Peruvian policies and politicians to propose and approve the creation of the 

Ministry of Culture based on the previous social, cultural, and political context.  

2.3. The Shift in State Reform 

In the 1990s, a shift in governance models began in the Western bloc, under which 

governments and their bureaucracies were expected to operate based on collective criteria.129 

This transformation mainly took place during administrative reforms in the state apparatus.130 

The changes occurred in two subcategories: governance reform and public management 

reform.131 The former redefines the public sector system so that the bureaucratic body 

contributes more to democratic governance; In turn, the latter aims to increase efficiency, reduce 

 
126 Flores, (2022), p.9. 
127 Ibid. 
128 Flores, (2022), p.10. 
129 According to Pierre, (2012), cited by Flores, (2022), p.11. 
130 Ibid. 
131 According to Pierre, (2012), cited by Flores, (2022), p.11. 



36 
 

costs, and compel bureaucracy to provide better service to the citizens.132 Both types of reforms 

require a degree of flexibility in state organizations, which must reformulate their guidelines and 

structures.133 

This New Public Management trend was characterized by decentralizing state services across 

the territory of a country to reach the entire population, with the understanding that the 

relationship between the state and the citizen should resemble a customer service model. Under 

New Public Management, the state's aim to provide better bureaucratic services to the population 

required a better understanding of the lifestyles and expectations of all social groups in its 

territory.134 This understanding should also be based on an idea of “receptivity” that must be 

introduced into the administrative cultures. Thus, the administration should gain accessibility, 

comprehensibility, and transparency towards citizens, as well as speed in solving the problems 

posed by society by creating public policies.135 

According to Echebarría and Cortázar, a series of modifications should improve the 

effectiveness and efficiency of organizations and their bureaucratic bodies to meet citizens' 

demands regarding the public apparatus.136 The transformations in the state apparatus that 

occurred in Latin American countries during the 1990s, were motivated by the democratization 

process and the deepening of the market economy.137In Peru, the Organic Law of the Executive 

Branch, Law No. 29158, was adopted at the end of 2007. This law stated that the executive 

branch organizations would be organized hierarchically, based on related functions and 

competencies, to avoid duplication or overlaps.138 The Ministry of Culture began with the 

 
132 Flores, (2022), p.11. 
133 Ibid. 
134 Barzelay, (2003), p. 43: cited by Flores, (2022), p.11. 
135 Barzelay, (1996), p. 425: cited by Flores, (2022), p.12. 
136 Echebarría and Cortázar, pp. 123, 126-27: cited by Flores, (2022), p.12. 
137 Flores, (2022), p.12. 
138 Flores, (2022), p.12. 



37 
 

premise that creating a new entity would provide public policies that the smaller entities in the 

same sector could follow.139 The Executive, led by former President García, considered it 

necessary for a single organization and bureaucratic body to design the country's cultural policy 

so that its dependencies would not propose or implement policies in another direction, implying 

scattered policies and more lavish spending from state coffers.140 

Several Latin American states are characterized by weak institutions in which the rules and 

regulations are volatile and change suddenly according to the vision of the rulers and decision-

makers of the moment.141 In the executive branch of government in Latin America, this lack of 

consistency between presidents, their cabinet officers, and the legislators generates considerable 

uncertainty about the permanence of recently created formal institutions.142 Along the same lines, 

Latin American states sometimes import institutional models from other locations without 

adequately evaluating the relevance of a foreign model.143  

Peru has a limited ability to support public sector reforms and has not broadly evaluated the 

suitability of a ministerial-level organization similar to the Ministry of Culture of France, for 

example.144 Weak institutions will allow development only as long as they propose a moderate 

change in the order of things. That was the case with the Ministry of Culture, as the Executive's 

proposal was more about reordering the administration of the cultural sector than implementing 

innovative or drastic changes.145 The reorganization put into practice the two types of reforms.  

First, governance reform, since the arrival of the ministry, should result in better management 

and valorization of the variety of customs and ways of life typical of a state that has gradually 

 
139 Ibid. 
140 Ibid. 
141 Levitsky and Murillo (2013) (p. 93) cited by Flores 2022, p.13. 
142 Ibid. 
143 Ibid. 
144 Ibid. 
145 Levitsky and Murillo (2013) (p. 93) cited by Flores 2022, p.13.  



38 
 

been considered intercultural, thus offering better possibilities for cultural development for its 

citizens;146 Second, public management reform, given the fusion of the organizations that would 

be attached under the new ministry and aligned with its cultural macro policies.147 

Conclusion 

In examining the background and evolution of the National Institute of Culture (INC) and its 

eventual transition into the Ministry of Culture, several critical insights emerge that are crucial 

for understanding the broader narrative of cultural policy and state restructuring in Peru. 

Firstly, the historical context provided by the establishment and evolution of the Directorate of 

Artistic Education and Cultural Extension highlights the foundational role that cultural 

institutions have played in promoting and preserving Peruvian heritage. The Directorate's efforts 

in fine arts, music, museums, libraries, and folklore underscore the state's early recognition of the 

importance of cultural education and preservation. This legacy laid the groundwork for future 

cultural policies and institutions. 

The creation of the Ministry of Culture in 2010 marked a significant shift in the state's 

approach to cultural governance. This change was driven by political will, societal support, and 

the need for greater institutionalization and coordination of cultural policies. The ministry's 

establishment reflects a broader trend toward recognizing culture as a critical national identity 

and development component. The political negotiations and public support that facilitated the 

ministry's creation underscore the importance of consensus and collaboration in policymaking. 

In summary, this chapter illustrates the historical and political processes that have shaped 

Peru's cultural institutions. The INC's evolution into the Ministry of Culture represents a 

 
146 Ibid. 
147 Flores, (2022), p.14. 



39 
 

significant milestone in the state's commitment to cultural preservation and promotion. This 

transition reflects broader trends in public administration reform and highlights the critical role 

of political negotiation and public support in institutional change. Understanding this context is 

essential for appreciating the current dynamics of cultural policy in Peru and the ongoing efforts 

to enhance the management and promotion of the nation's rich cultural heritage. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



40 
 

CHAPTER III:  NON-MATERIAL HERITAGE IN PERU 

 

“It is traditions and not genetics that may hold communities together.” 148 

 

Introduction 

 

On January 3, 1985, the President of the Republic, architect Fernando Belaunde, enacted 

Law No. 24047, known as the General Law for the Protection of the Nation's Cultural Heritage. 

This pivotal legislation defined the Cultural Heritage of the Nation as encompassing all cultural 

assets that testify to human creation, whether material or non-material, declared or not. Article six 

of the law delegated the responsibility of safeguarding and declaring the nation’s archaeological, 

historical, artistic, oral, and traditional cultural manifestations to the National Institute of Culture, 

which was then under the Ministry of Education. 

Following this law, on January 30, 1986, the Ministry of Education, upon the request of 

the National Institute of Culture, declared the choreographic and musical forms of La Marinera, in 

its various regional varieties, as Cultural Heritage of the Nation through Supreme Resolution No. 

022-86-ED. This decision equated non-material cultural heritage with the recognized material 

cultural heritage, thereby elevating traditional and collective creations to the highest rank in the 

hierarchy of heritage.  

The Ministry of Culture has developed a participatory system to inventory intangible 

cultural expressions, known as the Declaration of Manifestations of Intangible Cultural Heritage 

(DICH) as Cultural Heritage of the Nation. This initiative is part of the Ministry’s efforts to 

 
148 Gulliford, A. (2000), p. 11. Also see Deloria, V. Jr. (1969) Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto, 

London: Macmillan. —— (1992) ‘Indians, archaeologists, and the future’, American Antiquity, 57(4): 595–598. —

— (1998) ‘Conclusion: Anthros, Indians, and planetary reality’, in T. Biolsi and L. J. Zimmerman (eds) Indians and 

Anthropologists: Vine Deloria Jr. and the Critique of Anthropology, Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. 

Deloria, V. Jr. and Lytle, C.M. (1998) The Nations Within: The Past and Future of American Indian Sovereignty, 

Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 



41 
 

document, promote, and disseminate cultural heritage under the powers conferred by Law No. 

28296, the General Law of the Cultural Heritage of the Nation, enacted in 2004. This law repealed 

the earlier 1985 law and provided a comprehensive definition of intangible cultural heritage, 

emphasizing the importance of community traditions and their role in cultural and social identity. 

Drawing your attention to Figure 9, “from the Latin word “culture,” the idea arises that we 

cultivate people. Hence, culture comprises patterned thinking, feeling, reacting, and acquiring 

associations. These include beliefs, attitudes, and values. All are shared and learned among people 

who, in turn, create and shape objects and the property they occupy.” 149  

 
   

Figure 9:  Definition of Culture 

                                                Source: Tomlan et al., (2014), p. 266. 

 

The definition also aligns with the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible 

Cultural Heritage, which Peru ratified in 2005. This convention highlights the dynamic nature of 

intangible cultural heritage, recognizing it as a living legacy continuously recreated and 

transmitted from one generation to another. It underscores the importance of these cultural 

 
149 Tomlan et al., (2014), Chapter VII Advocacy and Ethics, p. 266. 



42 
 

expressions in providing communities with a sense of identity and continuity, which are crucial 

for maintaining cultural diversity and fostering mutual respect among communities. 

The DICH process involves a structured procedure whereby communities submit 

applications to declare their cultural expressions as Cultural Heritage of the Nation. These 

applications are reviewed by a multidisciplinary team within the Ministry of Culture, ensuring that 

the declaration is based on comprehensive and accurate information. The declarations are then 

made public, contributing to the safeguarding and promotion of Peru’s rich intangible cultural 

heritage.  

More than 410 intangible cultural heritage expressions have been declared as Cultural 

Heritage of the Nation, with a significant number belonging to music, dance, and ritual 

celebrations. Each declaration represents a collective effort by communities to preserve and 

promote their cultural heritage, reinforcing their identity and ensuring its transmission to future 

generations. This participatory process, supported by the state, underscores the importance of 

intangible cultural heritage in shaping the cultural landscape of Peru and promoting sustainable 

development. 

3.1  General Law for the Protection of the Nation's Cultural Heritage 

On January 3, 1985, the President of the Republic, architect Fernando Belaunde, enacted 

Law No. 24047, the General Law for the Protection of the Nation's Cultural Heritage. In its first 

article, this law established that the Cultural Heritage of the Nation consists of cultural assets that 

are a testament to human creation, whether material or non-material or explicitly declared.150  

Figure 7 shows the archive of Law No. 24047 Chapter I, General Provisions, Article 1: The 

Nation's Cultural Heritage is protected by the State and the National Community, whose 

 
150 Congreso de la República del Perú. (1985). p.1.  



43 
 

members are obliged to cooperate in its preservation.151 The Cultural Heritage of the Nation 

consists of cultural assets that are testimonies of human creation, whether material or immaterial, 

expressly declared as such due to their artistic, scientific, historical, or technical importance. 

Additionally, creations of nature can also be subject to such a declaration. 

 
    

Figure 10: General Law for the Protection of the Nation's Cultural Heritage. 

                          Source: Congreso de la República del Perú. (1985). p.1.  

 

As shown in Chapter II, the sixth article of No. 24047 entrusted the National Institute of 

Culture, the organization under the Ministry of Education, with the task of protecting and 

declaring the country's archaeological, historical, and artistic cultural heritage, as well as its oral 

and traditional cultural manifestations.152  

Under the authority of these articles, just one year later, on January 30, 1986, the Ministry of 

Education, at the request of the National Institute of Culture, declared the choreographic and 

musical forms of La Marinera, in its various regional varieties, as Cultural Heritage of the Nation 

through Supreme Resolution No. 022-86-ED.153 This equated non-material cultural heritage with 

 
151 Ibid. 
152 Congreso de la República del Perú, (1985), p.2. 
153 See Appendix 1  



44 
 

material, monumental, historical, archaeological, viceregal, or republican heritage, which already 

enjoyed this level of recognition, elevating the results of traditional and collective creation to the 

highest rank in the hierarchy of heritage.154 

Furthermore, this established a safeguarding procedure for living culture, refined over the 

years based on understanding the dynamics governing non-material cultural heritage. It has 

become a valued safeguarding mechanism managed by communities, who use it consistently and 

have turned it into the principal inventory of Peru's non-material heritage expressions.155  

In the case of non-material cultural heritage, Peru has developed a participatory system to 

create the inventory of these expressions, known as the Declaration of Intangible Cultural 

Heritage Manifestations (DICH) as Cultural Heritage of the Nation.156 This is, nowadays, part of 

the Ministry of Culture's work of recording, promoting, and disseminating cultural heritage 

under the powers conferred by Law No. 28296, the General Law of the Cultural Heritage of the 

Nation, enacted in 2004.157  

The Nation's Intangible Cultural Heritage includes the creations of a cultural community 

based on traditions, expressed by individuals either individually or collectively, and recognized 

as meeting the community's expectations as an expression of cultural and social identity. This 

also includes orally transmitted values, such as native languages, dialects, traditional knowledge, 

artistic, gastronomic, medicinal, technological, folkloric, or religious, the collective knowledge 

 
154 Ibid. 
155 Ministry of Culture, (2014, 2015, 2023), n.p. 
156 Ministry of Culture, (n.d., 2015, 2017), n.p.  
157 Congreso de la República del Perú, (2004), p.1. Law No. 28296 repealed former 1985-law No. 24047. Law No. 

28296 Article II.- Definition: An asset forming part of the Cultural Heritage of the Nation is understood to be any 

manifestation of human activity - material or immaterial - that, due to its importance, value, and paleontological, 

archaeological, architectural, historical, artistic, military, social, anthropological, traditional, religious, ethnological, 

scientific, technological or intellectual significance, is expressly declared as such or for which there is a legal 

presumption of being such. 



45 
 

of communities, and other cultural expressions or manifestations that form Peruvian cultural 

diversity.158 

This definition aligns with that adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural 

Heritage, drafted in 2003 and ratified by Peru in 2005: Intangible cultural heritage is a legacy 

from the past as it has full validity in the present, as it changes, is learned, is recreated, and is 

transmitted from one generation to another, according to the value that bearer communities give 

it in social and cultural life. The dynamic nature of intangible cultural heritage, as well as its 

close link to daily activities, rituals, or contemporary festive calendars, makes it possible for the 

community to recognize and value it as an element that shapes and gives life to its identity, 

strengthens its memory, and promotes its recognition within the country and the world.159 

DICHs are governed by Directive 003-2015-MC through Ministerial Resolution 338-2015 

and encompass the realm of practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, and wisdom—as 

well as the instruments, objects, artifacts, and cultural spaces associated with them—that 

communities, groups, and individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage.160 

DICHs includes current cultural manifestations and expressions such as languages and oral 

traditions; festivals and ritual celebrations; music and dance; visual artistic expressions: art and 

craftsmanship; traditional customs and norms; traditional forms of organization and authority; 

productive practices and technologies; knowledge, wisdom, and practices like conventional 

medicine and gastronomy; cultural spaces for the representation or performance of cultural 

practices.  Furthermore, the work of great masters, scholars, and creators in current cultural 

 
158 Congreso de la República del Perú, (2004), p.3. 
159 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.8. 
160 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.9. 



46 
 

manifestations, contributing to their recording, study, dissemination, and safeguarding, can be 

declared the Cultural Heritage of the Nation.161 

Intangible cultural heritage expressions play an essential role in society because they provide 

the communities that practice them with a sense of identity and continuity that is important 

because it strengthens individuals' ties with their historic memory and continuity.162 After all, 

they are part of an uninterrupted temporal chain that comes from distant — sometimes 

immemorial — times and projects into the future. In this sense, the continuity of these 

expressions is also a responsibility, as it falls upon the bearers to maintain their relevance for 

future generations.163 

Additionally, knowledge of cultural expressions contributes to building a citizenry open to 

diversity, as it promotes the exchange of values between cultures and strengthens relationships 

among citizens based on mutual respect.164 Intangible cultural heritage is also a pathway to 

sustainable development, as it encourages activities that promote social well-being, are respectful 

of the environment, and, when responsibly utilized, constitute a historical and cultural capital 

with great economic potential, for instance, with cultural entrepreneurship projects or tourism, 

which aim to enhance visitors' sensitivity to cultural expressions and knowledge while 

exchanging resources within communities.165 

Expressions of intangible cultural heritage are part of a community's 'living' culture, a 

condition that characterizes their essence but makes them easily vulnerable to social, economic, 

and cultural changes.166 One factor that most affects the expression of intangible cultural heritage 

 
161 Ministry of Culture, (n.d., 2015, 2017), n.p.  
162 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.13. 
163 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.13. 
164 Ibid. 
165 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.13. 
166 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.14. 



47 
 

is globalization; this process leads to individual freedom but tends to homogenize behaviors and 

ideologies or promote new ways of life and beliefs.167 Another factor is disseminating a type of 

education whose teaching methods and values often differ from those of the communities and 

whose knowledge transmission and preservation systems differ from those practiced in large 

cities; the bearers themselves are called to identify the threats that can weaken or interrupt 

traditions and to implement actions that can counteract the dangers threatening their cultural 

expressions.168  

These measures include identifying, documenting, researching, preserving, promoting, and 

disseminating the cultural expressions of a community to favor their transmission and continuity 

over time, thereby raising awareness of their importance and respect for their significance.169 

Intangible cultural heritage depends on the groups that collectively create, preserve, and transmit 

it, so the bearer communities are considered the most suitable to identify and safeguard it; in this 

sense, decisions about revitalizing a cultural expression will depend on its continued relevance 

and significance to its bearers who also have the right to request the unlisting of declarations.170 

In tandem with the Law on the Right to Prior Consultation to Indigenous or Native Peoples, 

Law 29785,171 the Ministry of Culture supports communities' safeguarding efforts through 

inventories, research, sound and visual recordings, and dissemination and promotion projects.172 

That is why one of the main safeguarding actions implemented first by the National Institution of 

 
167 Ibid. 
168 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.14. 
169 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.17. 
170 Ibid. 
171 Congreso de la República del Perú, (2011), p.1. Article 2. Right to consultation: Indigenous or native peoples 

can be consulted in advance on legislative or administrative measures that directly affect their collective rights, 

physical existence, cultural identity, quality of life, or development.  
172Congreso de la República del Perú, (2011), p.3. Article 6. Form of participation of indigenous or native peoples: 

Indigenous or native peoples participate in the consultation processes through their representative institutions and 

organizations, chosen by their traditional uses and customs. 



48 
 

Culture from 1986 until 2010 and then by the Ministry of Culture is this declaration process of 

the Cultural Heritage of the Nation since this participatory database, registration, promotion, and 

dissemination system is done at the local bearers and communities' request.173 The DICH process 

begins when a community of bearers expresses interest in valorizing and promoting their 

intangible cultural heritage and submits an application to the Ministry of Culture. The 

community organizes itself to prepare the application, drawing on the knowledge of elders, the 

leadership of traditional or political authorities, and support from the Decentralized Directorate 

of Culture in their region. It's worth noting that the application includes two main components: a 

detailed description of the characteristics of the expression and an identification of the threats or 

risks facing the expression to be declared, along with a corresponding safeguard plan to mitigate 

or neutralize these identified dangers.174  

The application also includes several annexes, two of which are particularly noteworthy: one 

document that confirms the community's participation in the application process and its consent 

to the declaration and another document in which the community of bearers commits to 

collaborating with the Ministry of Culture to produce a detailed report on the state of the 

expression every five years.175 This reporting allows for monitoring the evolution of the 

expression and the implementation of safeguard measures.176 The applications developed by 

communities vary in length and depth, depending on the complexity of the described cultural 

universe; these applications are submitted to the Decentralized Directorates of Culture in the 

region to which the community of bearers belongs.177  

 
173Congreso de la República del Perú, (2004), p.4. 
174 Congreso de la República del Perú, (2004), p.4. 
175 Ibid. 
176 Ibid 
177 Ibid. 



49 
 

Specialists at these directorates conduct an initial review to ensure that all necessary 

documentation is included before forwarding the application to the central office of the Ministry 

of Culture. At the Directorate of Intangible Heritage, a multidisciplinary team comprising 

anthropologists, historians, and sociologists conducts an in-depth analysis and systematization of 

the application's contents; this analysis is documented in a report supporting the declaration.178 

Throughout this process, the team establishes a relationship with representatives of the bearers to 

clarify or strengthen the information in the report. This document, which provides 

comprehensive content developed in consensus with the community, becomes part of the Deputy 

Ministerial Resolution that formalizes the declaration of cultural expression as a Cultural 

Heritage of the Nation.179 

Therefore, the declaration results from a valuable exchange that consolidates precise, 

firsthand information provided by the organized community of bearers and the examination by 

Ministry of Culture professionals, providing the document with the added value of academic 

analysis. It is also important to note that the declarations and the corresponding supporting 

reports and photographs provided by the bearers are available to the public through the Ministry 

of Culture's website.180 Many intangible cultural heritage expressions lack in-depth studies that 

showcase and disseminate their characteristics and values. So, this repository is also an 

invaluable source of reliable information for current and future research. 

Molina Palomino, Pablo Alberto, a Directorate of Intangible Heritage specialist in the 

Ministry of Culture from Peru, participated in the 20th Anniversary of the Convention for the 

 
178 Congreso de la República del Perú, (2004), p.5. 
179 Ibid. 
180 Ministry of Culture, (n.d.). http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp  

http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp


50 
 

Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2023.181 He highlighted that establishing a 

heritage regime and an “authorized heritage discourse”182 has been an extensive process in Peru, 

predating the 2003 Convention. This process involved the government's increasing specialization 

in managing intangible cultural heritage.183 This development has three notable periods: 1986-

2001, 2003-2010, and 2011-present.184 A crucial metric for understanding the shifts across these 

periods is the number of declarations185 made between 1986 and 2001; only five were issued.186 

This number rose to 85 between 2003 and 2010; from 2011 to 2022, it surged to 286.187 Using 

the formula in Graph 1 and keeping everything constant, for 2024, the prediction is 

approximately 28 DICHs. By June 26th, 15 DICHs have already been declared.188 

Molina also uncovers factors that have driven this significant increase in recognizing cultural 

practices as heritage.189 A lack of clear regulations and standardized procedures marked the 

initial period from 1986 to 2001.190 The first declaration in 1986 was issued via a Supreme 

Resolution, whereas subsequent declarations in 1988 and 1993 were made through Departmental 

Resolutions.191 By 2000 and 2001, declarations were issued with National Directorial 

Resolutions, a practice that continued until the establishment of the Ministry of Culture in 

2010.192 This period also saw variability in the technical areas responsible for providing 

favorable opinions on each declaration. Different Directorates within the National Institute of 

 
181 20th Anniversary of the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage: Strategies and 

Experiences from Latin America and the Caribbean / Editors, Luciana Gonçalves de Carvalho, Yoselin Rodríguez. 

— Belém: NUMA/UFPA; Brasilia: ABA Publications, 2023. 
182 Smith, (2006), p. 29. 
183 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.103. 
184 Ibid. 
185 Ibid. 
186 Ibid. 
187 Ibid. 
188 Ministry of Culture, (n.d.). http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp 
189 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.104 
190 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.105 
191 Ibid. 
192 Ibid. 

http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp


51 
 

Culture supported these declarations. Initially, it was the Directorate-General of Monumental 

Cultural Heritage, followed by the Directorate-General of Production for Cultural Development, 

which soon changed its name to the Directorate-General of Cultural Production, Development 

and Diffusion.193  

Eventually, the Directorate of Registration and Study of Contemporary Peruvian Culture took 

over.194 The list of cultural heritage elements was diverse, encompassing various forms of dance 

and musical instruments (such as the Marinera, Tondero, and Peruvian Cajón), a denomination of 

origin (Pisco), and a horse breed (Peruvian Paso Horse).195 Consequently, each declaration 

involved a degree of bureaucratic interest.196  

Graph 1: Manifestations of Intangible Cultural Heritage declared by year in Peru (1986-2023) 

 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Developed by the author. 

Unlike the first period, the second period was marked by developing a normative framework 

that clarified concepts and established processes, providing greater consistency and stability to 

 
193 Ibid. 
194 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.105 
195 Ibid. 
196 Ibid. 



52 
 

the Peruvian heritage regime.197 The 2003 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the 

Intangible Cultural Heritage was a turning point with immediate effects.198 The new General 

Law on the Nation’s Cultural Heritage, enacted in 2004, included a definition of intangible assets 

as part of the Nation’s Cultural Heritage for the first time.199 As we saw earlier, the General Law 

on Support to Cultural Heritage used the term "intangible," but it was not adequately defined 

since the norm was limited to movable and immovable material properties.200 

More significantly, Guideline No. 002-2004-INC was approved in the same year, 

establishing processes and criteria for assessing requests for declarations for the first time.201 

This expanded the range of stakeholders directly involved in the processes for declaring cultural 

manifestations as part of the Nation’s Cultural Heritage.202 Additionally, bearer communities 

gained agency previously reserved solely for public officials.203 From a governmental 

perspective, the Guideline became the foundation upon which the Peruvian heritage regime was 

built and represented the official discourse on heritage. However, as explained by Molina, it was 

an instrument that tried to address many aspects simultaneously, leaving unresolved issues and 

overlooked areas.204 

Regarding this, although the Guideline was approved, the declaration of the Nation’s Cultural 

Heritage remained a central focus. 205 It also introduced other declarative categories based on 

hierarchical geographic-territorial criteria.206 Cultural manifestations could now be declared as 

 
197 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.106 
198 Ibid. 
199 Ibid. 
200 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.106 
201 Ibid. 
202 Ibid. 
203 Ibid. 
204 Ibid. 
205 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.107 
206 Ibid. 



53 
 

Communal Heritage if they pertained to a rural or native community, Ethnic Heritage if they 

were associated with an ethnicity or ethnic-linguistic group, and Regional Heritage if they 

characterized a region or a significant part of it.207 The problem with this sub-classification was 

that it did not clarify whether these categories served as substitutes or complements, or as some 

special mention, to the main category of the Nation’s Cultural Heritage.208 Additionally, the 

Guideline introduced the possibility of declaring the work of great masters, sages, and creators as 

part of the Nation’s Cultural Heritage, a category unrelated to the geographic-territorial criteria 

mentioned later.209 

On the other hand, the Guideline introduced another type of non-heritage declaration, adding 

further complexity to these metacultural production processes.210 It allowed for the possibility of 

declaring festive activities as "of cultural interest," traditional crafts as "traditional products," and 

culinary manifestations as "Traditional Specialties."211 These non-heritage declarations could be 

granted as additions to cultural manifestations already declared.212 

Additionally, the Guideline encompassed the official recognitions granted by the then-

existing National Institute of Culture, including Commendable Culture Personality, Living 

Repository of Collective Memory, and Medal of Honor from Peruvian Culture.213 This created a 

complex structure of heritage and non-heritage declaration categories, which were not 

necessarily exclusive, layered with a system of recognitions. This structure remained until seven 

 
207 Ibid. 
208 Ibid. 
209 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.107 
210 Ibid. 
211 Ibid. 
212 Ibid. 
213 Ibid. 



54 
 

years later when a new Guideline was approved in 2011 and updated in 2015, bringing 

significant changes to the structure of declarations.214 

Therefore, the third phase in the development of the Peruvian heritage regime was marked by 

a reduction in declaration processes and categories and a restructuring of the government 

apparatus responsible for its implementation.215 As detailed in the previous chapter, the main 

turning point was the transformation of the National Institute of Culture, which was part of the 

Ministry of Education, into the Ministry of Culture. Consequently, the Directorate of 

Registration and Study of Contemporary Peruvian Culture became the Directorate of 

Contemporary Intangible Heritage in 2011 and, two years later, the present Directorate of 

Intangible Heritage.216 

Table No.01:  Declaration categories in the Peruvian Heritage Regime. 

 
Source: Developed by Molina in 2023. 

As seen in Table N. 01, the approval of Guideline N. 001-2011-MC eliminated the 

communal, ethnic, and regional cultural heritage categories, leaving only the category of 

Nation’s Cultural Heritage.217 While it retained the non-heritage declaration categories, it 

 
214 Ibid. 
215 Ibid. 
216 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.108 
217 Ibid. 



55 
 

excluded the possibility of their overlap with the heritage categories; however, the recognition 

system remained within the same scope.218 

Guideline N. 003-2015-MC further simplified the structure by completely removing the non-

heritage categories of "Traditional Products" and "Traditional Culinary Specialty," leaving only 

"Cultural Interest."219  This category was expanded to include activities, projects, products, or 

works contributing to the general promotion, diffusion, preservation, retrieval, and safeguarding 

of arts and culture.220 The responsibility for issuing these declarations was also transferred from 

the Directorate of Intangible Heritage to the Directorate of Arts, a technical unit in a different 

branch of the Ministry of Culture’s organizational structure.221 Finally, this new Guideline 

excluded the recognition system introduced in 2004 and maintained in 2011, which was then 

regulated by a separate Guideline dedicated exclusively to the recognition.222 

Molina finally highlights that the work by great masters heritage-declaration category is 

problematic because it introduces, through internal institutional regulations, a heritage category 

that is not included in Law N. 28296 and does not align with the definition of "intangible 

heritage."223  To understand its origin and relationship to other declared cultural practices and 

expressions, it is necessary first to examine the universe of declarations made in Peru to date.224 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
218 Ibid. 
219 Ibid. 
220 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.108 
221 Ibid. 
222 Ibid. 
223 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.109 Also see: Congreso de la República del Perú, (2004), Law No. 28296, Article I. 
224 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.109 



56 
 

Table No.02: Distribution of Declarations (1986-2022) according to the intangible heritage area.  

 

 
Source: Developed by Molina in 2023. 

 

The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage specifies, in 

Article 2, that intangible cultural heritage is expressed mainly in five areas.225 In contrast, the 

Peruvian legal framework categorizes intangible cultural heritage into up to nine areas.226 While 

there are notable similarities between UNESCO's and Peru's classifications, there are also 

 
225 Ibid. 
226 Ibid. 



57 
 

significant differences, with some categories in Peru lacking direct equivalents in UNESCO’s 

framework.227 For instance, "cultural spaces" for representation and "Works by great masters, 

sages, and creators" do not have direct counterparts in UNESCO's definitions.228 

Based on Table 2, several key observations can be made.  Firstly, 70.86% of the 374 

declarations from 1986 to 2022 fall into just two of the nine specified areas: Feasts and Ritual 

Celebrations (131) and Music and Dances (104).229  Secondly, the remaining seven areas account 

for only 23.26% of the total, with Plastic Artistic Expressions (38) being the most prominent 

among them.230 Thirdly, "Works by Great Masters, Sages, and Creators" ranks as the fourth most 

common category in the Ministry of Culture’s declarations, highlighting its significant role in 

Peru's heritage system.231 

Graph 2: Timeline: Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage  

by year and by geographical scope (1986-2024) 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Developed by the author using Table 4. 

 
227 Ibid. 
228 Ibid. 
229 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.110. and p.111. 
230 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.111. 
231 Ibid. 



58 
 

This distribution changes when analyzing the declarations based on geographic-territorial 

criteria. This approach considers the region or jurisdiction where the cultural manifestation, 

recognized as the Nation’s Cultural Heritage, is practiced and where the communities of bearers 

are located.232 Peru is divided into 24 departments, each consisting of provinces and districts, 

which must be factored into this analysis.233 

Table 3: DICH by year and by geographical scope (1986-2024) 

Year Great Masters National Multiregional Regional Province District Total 

1986 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

1988 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 

1993 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 

2000 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

2001 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

2003 0 1 3 0 2 1 7 

2004 1 3 1 0 4 0 9 

2005 0 0 4 0 2 0 6 

2006 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 

2007 1 2 2 0 3 0 8 

2008 1 1 3 0 14 0 19 

2009 0 1 1 0 17 1 20 

2010 0 0 2 0 10 0 12 

2011 0 0 0 0 12 0 12 

2012 0 0 0 0 17 1 18 

2013 0 0 2 0 14 6 22 

2014 0 0 2 1 7 19 29 

2015 0 0 0 5 6 15 26 

2016 1 0 1 1 5 13 21 

2017 1 0 1 1 1 21 25 

2018 3 0 0 0 4 34 41 

2019 0 1 1 1 7 14 24 

2020 2 0 0 0 3 10 15 

2021 2 1 0 0 5 12 20 

2022 1 0 2 0 6 23 32 

2023 3 0 0 1 4 13 21 

2024 0 1 0 2 3 9 15 

Total 16 14 27 12 149 192 410 

 3.90% 3.41% 6.59% 2.93% 36.34% 46.83% 100% 

Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Developed by the author. 

 
232 Ibid. 
233 Ibid. 



59 
 

With the introduction of international and national regulatory frameworks, specifically by 

UNESCO in 2003 and Peru in 2004, the focus of DICH has shifted towards those with broader 

Multi-departmental and Departmental scopes.234  During the second phase of the heritage regime, 

DICHs were primarily initiated by the INC or other similar institutions; however, in the third 

phase, native associations from the Peruvian Amazon became more prominent.235 

Graph 3: DICH by Year at the District Level (1986-2023). 

 
  Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 

Graph 4: DICH by Year at the Province Level (1986-2023) 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 

 

 
234 Molina, P. A. (2023). p.111. 
235 Ibid. 



60 
 

Graph 5: DICH by Year at the Regional Level (1986-2023) 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 

 

Graph 6: DICH by Year at the Multi-Regional Level (1986-2023) 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 

 

Graph 7: DICH by Year at the National Level (1986 - June 2024) 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 



61 
 

 

This shift is particularly evident in local manifestations, which have become more significant 

since 2003. Local and communal governments have increasingly become central in designating 

cultural practices as heritage. Additionally, declarations of “Works by Great Masters, Sages, and 

Creators” emerged in 2004 and became more consistent starting in 2015, with at least one such 

declaration occurring yearly.236   

Graph 8: DICH “Works by Great Masters” by Year (1986 - June 2024) 

 
Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 

 

Figure 11 is a screenshot of the geoportal of the Ministry of Cultura, which depicts the 

Peruvian map geographically divided into 196 provinces within the 24 regions; it is colored 

according to the number of expressions where the lightest color means one expression, the 

orange means 2 to 3 expressions and the dark color meaning more than four expressions, 

however it does not make a good job explaining the fundamental cultural dynamic of the 

declarations made a the regional level that also compromises its provinces.  

 
236 Molina, P. A. (2023), p. 112 



62 
 

 
Figure 11: Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage (DICH) in Peru. 

Source: https://geoportal.cultura.gob.pe/mapa/portal 

 

Table 4: Top 10 DICH at the Province Level (2004 – 2016) 
PROVINCE DICH04 DICH06 DICH08 DICH09 DICH10 DICH11 DICH13 DICH14 DICH15 DICH16 

Huancavelica 10 12 17 18 18 18 21 24 29 32 

Andahuaylas 10 14 21 22 22 22 26 26 27 30 

Chumbivilcas 10 12 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 30 

Cusco 10 12 19 21 22 22 22 24 26 30 

Azángaro 11 12 18 19 20 20 21 23 25 29 

Caylloma 10 12 18 20 20 21 23 25 26 29 

Jauja 9 11 18 20 20 22 24 24 25 29 

Arequipa 10 12 18 20 20 20 22 24 25 28 

Calca 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 22 25 28 

Source: Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author. 

 

Table 4 is extracted from the author's dataset (see Appendix).  The descriptive statistics in 

Chapter IV show the INC's highest (twenty-two) and lowest (fifteen) number of declarations 

made until 2010 and an almost similar mean and median of 18 DICHs with a perfectly 

symmetrical distribution and acceptable skewness and kurtosis. 

3.2  Objectives and Benefits of DICHs as National Cultural Heritage: 

Communities organize information about their intangible cultural heritage expressions. 

Organizing information involves self-reflection, leading to a deeper understanding of their 

https://geoportal.cultura.gob.pe/mapa/portal


63 
 

artistic expressions and a greater appreciation for them within the community of bearers. This 

empowerment strengthens their cultural identity.  Communities also receive official recognition 

of their cultural expressions from the state. This recognition by the government is a valuable and 

effective tool for safeguarding these expressions against various external. It also serves as an 

essential platform for garnering support from both public and private entities.  

Each of these declarations is met with great enthusiasm by their bearers, representing the 

product of the collective will, knowledge, and efforts. They are appreciated and celebrated 

symbolically as recognition by the government and society for contributing a unique and 

particular expression that is part of and enhances the country's cultural diversity. At the same 

time, they are understood as a tangible commitment by the community to safeguard and transmit 

their cultural heritage to future generations. Thus, each declaration of a component of Peru's 

living culture as a Cultural Heritage of the Nation is intended to be the first step on a consistent 

path to ensuring its continuity under the leadership of the bearers and with the cooperation of the 

state and other stakeholders involved. 

3.3.  Definitions according to the Ministerial Resolution No. 338-2015-MC:237 

 Four essential definitions are provided by the Ministerial Resolution that guides the process:  

Asset part of the Cultural Heritage of the Nation: An asset part of the Cultural Heritage of the 

Nation is understood to be any manifestation of human activity, whether material or immaterial, 

which, due to its importance, value, and paleontological, archaeological, architectural, historical, 

artistic, military, social, anthropological, traditional, religious, ethnological, scientific, 

technological, or intellectual significance, is expressly declared as such or for which there is a 

legal presumption of being so. These assets have the status of public or private property, subject 

 
237 Ministry of Culture, (2015), p.10. 



64 
 

to the limitations established by Law No. 28296, the General Law on the Cultural Heritage of the 

Nation. 

Intangible Assets: Intangible assets are creations of a cultural community based on 

traditions, expressed by individuals individually or collectively, and recognized as meeting the 

community's expectations as an expression of cultural and social identity. These also include 

orally transmitted values, such as Native languages, dialects, and traditional knowledge, whether 

the artistic, culinary, medicinal, technological, folkloric, or religious, collective understanding of 

peoples, and other cultural expressions or manifestations that comprise our cultural diversity. 

Intangible Cultural Heritage: Intangible Cultural Heritage is the customs, practices, 

representations, expressions, knowledge, techniques, and skills, as well as the instruments, 

objects, artifacts, and cultural spaces associated with them, recognized by communities, groups, 

and individuals as part of their Cultural Heritage.  This Intangible Cultural Heritage, passed 

down from generation to generation, is re-created by communities, groups, and individuals based 

on their environment, interaction with nature, and history. It gives them a sense of identity and 

continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity. Those who 

implement this Directive consider only intangible cultural heritage compatible with existing 

international human rights instruments and the imperatives of mutual respect among 

communities, groups, and individuals and sustainable development. 

Cultural Interest: Cultural Interest is the designation that the Ministry of Culture grants 

to certain activities, projects, products, or works that meet the requirements to be considered as 

such. 

 

 

 

 



65 
 

3.4.  Procedure for Submitting a Declaration Request as Cultural Heritage of the Nation 

The procedure begins when the community submits a request accompanied by a dossier 

containing information about the expression they wish to declare. The dossier's development 

should be a participatory process involving the cultural expression's bearers, ensuring support for 

the declaration and the relevance and validity of the information contained therein. It is essential 

to provide explicit evidence that the bearers of the expression or their representatives consent to 

the declaration of the manifestation as a Cultural Heritage of the Nation and commit to its 

safeguarding. The dossier should contain the following five sections: 

i. Research: A study explaining the expression based on the following elements: 

a. General Description: 

• Name or names of the cultural expression, including names in native languages.  

• Location and extent of the expression. Places where the expression is manifested may occur 

in more than one town or district. This description should include geographical information 

(district, province, department) and different spaces where it is practiced (churches, etc.).  

• Temporality. Date of performance and its relation to the life cycle or festive, productive, 

civic, or other calendars.238 

b. Characteristics:  

• History. Information about the history and continuity of the expression.  

• Description of the expression. Explanation of the different processes, sequences, activities, 

and elements involved in an expression. For example, in the case of festivals and ritual 

celebrations, this includes rituals (ancestral and/or Catholic), dances (music, choreography, 

and attire), festive role systems, and different moments of execution (preparations, central 

 
238 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.21. 



66 
 

days, etc.). For musical genres and dances, it includes musical scores and sound recordings. 

Artisanal expressions include the inputs, materials, tools, and techniques used to obtain a 

product, as well as the design, symbolic content, and the use given to this same product once 

finished. On the other hand, the description of a traditional medicine practice should include 

specialists, diagnostic methods, and healing inputs and methods.  

• Bearers. Number, gender, age group, and the bearers’ role in the expression.  

• Transmission Process. Ways in which expressions’ knowledge and expertise are transmitted.  

c. Value:  

• Meanings the expression holds for the community.  

• Relationship with other cultural expressions.  

d. Safeguarding Plan: Threats to the viability of the cultural manifestation must be identified, 

and the measures that the community, groups, and, in some cases, individuals will take to 

mitigate them should be included in the record. 239 

ii. Bibliography: Books, articles, songbooks, translations, sound recordings, and audiovisual 

documents used for research, as well as the names of informants who contributed their 

testimony.  

iii. Photographs: At least 10.  

iv. Documentary Evidence: Proof that the record has been prepared with the participation of the 

community, groups, and, in some cases, individuals, indicating the prior informed consent of the 

bearers to request the declaration.   

v. A Commitment Document from the community, groups, and, in some cases, individuals who 

are bearers of the cultural expression to collaborate with the Decentralized Culture Directorates 

 
239 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.22. 



67 
 

in their territorial jurisdiction to prepare a detailed report on the state of the expression every five 

years for submission to the Ministry of Culture. This allows the institutional registry to be 

updated regarding changes in the manifestation, any risks that may have arisen for its validity, 

and other relevant aspects for institutional monitoring and safeguarding, if applicable.  

Additional annexes, such as diagrams, musical scores, and sound and/or film recordings, may be 

attached.240 

vi. Evaluation and Outcome  

The Directorate of Intangible Heritage evaluates the record, considering the technical criteria: 

a.  Historical value and evidence of being part of a tradition. 

b.  Symbolic or emblematic value and the current significance as a symbol of cultural identity. 

c.  Continuity and relevance in everyday life or the collective life calendar, in the maintenance of 

customs and beliefs, in the revitalization of traditions, the transmission and development of 

knowledge and technologies, production and productivity, and collective well-being.241 

d.  Local, regional, national, or international representativeness and transcendence due to its 

collective mobilization and participation capacity. 

e.  Cultural expressions that do not violate fundamental rights such as life (Article 1 of the 

Political Constitution of Peru), personal integrity, and the well-being of individuals (Article 2, 

paragraph 1 of the Political Constitution of Peru), or subvert the constitutional order or public 

order. Expressions that directly or indirectly affect the environment or sustainable development, 

do not respect the imperatives of mutual respect between communities, groups, and individuals, 

or involve acts of cruelty and sacrifice of animals will not be considered eligible for declaration 

as National Cultural Heritage. Based on these technical criteria, the Directorate of Intangible 

 
240 Ministry of Culture, (2017), p.22. 
241 Ministry of Culture, (2015), p.6. 



68 
 

Heritage identifies the importance, value, scope, and transcendence of intangible cultural 

heritage manifestations for their declaration as National Cultural Heritage.242  

Conclusion. 

Law No. 28296, enacted in 2004, represented a pivotal shift in Peru's cultural heritage legislation, 

replacing Law No. 24047. This updated framework significantly expanded the protection of 

cultural heritage by broadening the definition of intangible cultural heritage. Rooted in the Latin 

concept of "cultura," which denotes the cultivation of people, the law acknowledged that cultural 

heritage encompasses tangible artifacts and the intricate patterns of thought, feeling, and 

association that define a society, as highlighted by Professor Michael Tomlan. This inclusive 

approach reflects Peru's evolving understanding of cultural diversity, encompassing traditional 

rituals and contemporary expressions contributing to national identity.  

Law No. 24047's initial implementation marked a significant milestone in Peru's cultural heritage 

conservation efforts. In 1986, just one year after its enactment, the traditional Peruvian dance form 

La Marinera was declared a Cultural Heritage of the Nation. This designation signaled a paradigm 

shift, elevating non-material cultural heritage to equal standing with tangible artifacts. La 

Marinera's recognition underscored the law's broader impact in valuing cultural practices that 

embody Peru's social and historical fabric, fostering community pride in shared cultural 

expressions. 

Central to Peru's cultural heritage protection framework is the Ministry of Culture, which plays a 

pivotal role in developing and administering policies for safeguarding intangible cultural heritage. 

One key initiative is the participatory system for inventorying intangible cultural heritage (DICH), 

 
242 Ministry of Culture, (2015), p.7. 



69 
 

engaging local communities in documenting and preserving their cultural practices. This 

grassroots approach ensures that conservation efforts are rooted in community participation, 

enhancing resilience against external threats while promoting sustainable development through 

cultural tourism and creative industries. 

Intangible cultural heritage holds profound significance for Peruvian communities, embodying 

their collective identity, history, and values. These cultural expressions provide continuity and a 

sense of belonging amidst social and economic changes, celebrating unique practices that enrich 

Peru's cultural landscape. However, globalization and educational shifts pose risks to these 

traditions, highlighting the importance of safeguarding intangible heritage to preserve cultural 

diversity and promote sustainable development rooted in cultural resilience. 

Efforts to safeguard Peru's intangible cultural heritage encompass proactive measures such as 

documentation, research, promotion, and dissemination. These initiatives raise awareness about 

the significance of cultural practices and ensure their transmission to future generations. 

Communities play a central role in these efforts, actively maintaining and transmitting their 

heritage through safeguarding plans tailored to address specific threats. This collaborative 

approach strengthens cultural identity and harnesses cultural assets for economic and social 

benefit, fostering sustainable development. 

The declaration of intangible cultural heritage follows a rigorous process, beginning with 

community applications and comprehensive documentation. Communities seeking official 

recognition compile dossiers outlining historical backgrounds, characteristics, and significance, 

evaluated by the Directorate of Intangible Heritage. Criteria include historical value, symbolic 

meaning, continuity in community life, and representativeness at local, regional, or national levels. 

This inclusive process emphasizes community engagement and commitment, ensuring heritage 



70 
 

conservation efforts are grounded in local knowledge and priorities and fostering deeper public 

appreciation for Peru's cultural diversity. 

Declaring intangible cultural heritage as Cultural Heritage of the Nation yields numerous benefits 

for Peruvian communities. Official recognition enhances cultural identity and pride, validating 

practices integral to national heritage. Over 400 cultural expressions have received this 

designation, reflecting Peru's rich diversity. Declarations also safeguard cultural knowledge and 

traditions, ensuring transmission to future generations. Public access to information promotes 

awareness and support, strengthening social cohesion and cultural tourism initiatives. 

Public access to declarations and supporting materials is crucial in promoting awareness and 

appreciation for Peru's cultural heritage. The Ministry of Culture ensures information on cultural 

expressions is readily available, enriching public discourse and fostering community engagement. 

Educational initiatives enhance understanding of intangible cultural heritage's significance, 

promoting respect for diversity and social bonds across communities. These efforts safeguard 

Peru's cultural legacy, ensuring responsible stewardship and sustainable development. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



71 
 

CHAPTER IV: EXPLORATORY AND GROW THEORY CORRELATIONS:  DICH vs. 

MONETARY POVERTY 

 

“Enough is enough. These people have no crown; they are not first-class citizens.”243  

 

Introduction 
 

As the previous chapter demonstrated, the number of Declarations of Intangible Cultural 

Heritage (DICH) varies considerably across Peru’s regions.  If it is assumed that preserving and 

promoting cultural heritage can attract tourism and cultural industries, they might contribute to 

economic development and poverty reduction.244  Areas with more DICH might experience 

greater wealth.  By contrast, areas located in the high Andes, among the Quechua dependent on 

weaving, might experience higher poverty due to the challenges associated with transportation, 

communication, and fewer educational opportunities.  Social exclusion and inequality may affect 

these Andean communities. The economic outlook suggests that anticipated growth rates may 

not significantly contribute to achieving poverty reduction goals in the foreseeable future.245   

To address these questions, this chapter uses five research approaches: (1.) quantitative 

methods to analyze numerical data related to population and unemployment rates, (2) a review of 

official reports from the Ministry of Culture regarding Declarations of Intangible Cultural 

Heritage (DICH), (3.) interviews with officials working in the area of Intangible Heritage in the 

Ministry of Culture, (4) a review existing educational records, and (5.) a longitudinal analysis to 

track changes over time.  

 
243 Duran Guevara, N., (2019), n.p. “The memory of former President Alan Garcia for another Amazonian people, 

the Awajún, is more recent and linked to the struggle against the promulgation of Legislative Decrees DL-1064 and 

DL-1090, which favored extractive companies. This struggle united three large Jibaro peoples: the Awajún, Wampis 

and the Shawis, who protested for a month in what they call “the last great war.” That day, there was confusion; no 

one knew how many people had died; this event has become known as the “Baguazo.” Also see Andina (2019), n.p. 
244 Croes et al., (2015); Seyfi et al., (2018). 
245 Pulgar, (1987); Castellanos, (2007); Agostini et al., (2010). 

 



72 
 

4.1.  Socio-Demographic Data:  2017 Peruvian Census 

The National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI) published the report “Peru: 

Sociodemographic Profile,” which has detailed information on the population: demographic, 

social, and economic; housing; infrastructure and essential services; and households:246  

According to the results, the country's total population amounted to 31,237,385, of which 

29,381,884 represent the population counted on October 22, 2017.  By comparison, 1,855,501 

inhabitants were the omitted population calculated through the Census Evaluation Survey, 

equivalent to an omission rate of 5.94%. It should be noted that the population has had an 

average annual growth of 1.0% in the last ten years.247  

About 80.0% of the population lives in urban areas.  The population of the country's urban 

area totaled 23,311,893 inhabitants, representing 79.3% of the national total, while, in the rural 

area, 6,690,991 people were counted and represented 20.7%. Between 2007 and 2017, the urban 

population increased by 17.3%, equivalent to 343,454 people per year, or an average annual rate 

of 1.6%.  Meanwhile, the rural population decreased by 19.4%, or an average reduction of 

146,481 people per year, equivalent to an average annual rate of -2.1%.  Additionally, the 

censuses showed that the population in the coastal region was 17,370,297 inhabitants, that is, 

58.0%; in the Sierra, 8,268,183 inhabitants (28.1%) and the Jungle, 4,760,404 inhabitants 

(13.9%).248  

The female population is slightly higher than the male.  According to the 2017 Census, the 

male population of Peru totaled 14,450,757 (49.2%), and the female population was 14,931,127 

(50.8%), a structure similar to that of the 2007 Census.  In the intercensal period (2007-2017), 

 
246 Using the 2017 National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 
247 Ibid. 
248 Ibid. 



73 
 

the male population increased by 828,117 men (6.1% in 10 years); meanwhile, the female 

population increased by 1,141,610 (8.3%).249 

Most cohabiting women have two sons and/or daughters. Cohabiting women of childbearing 

age (15 to 49 years) represent 2,708,036, of which 782,075 have two daughters and/or sons born 

alive, 780,064 have one daughter and/or son, 441,040 have three daughters and/or sons born 

alive; and 401,576 have four and more daughters and/or sons born alive.  In the case of married 

women of childbearing age, 800,639 have one or two daughters and/or sons born alive, 637,049 

have three daughters and/or sons or more born alive, while 109,647 married women do not have 

daughters and/or sons born alive.250 

The majority, 79.1%, of the population resides in the department where they were born.  

According to the 2017 National Census results, 79.1% (23,221,760) of the country's population 

resides in the place where they were born, 20.3% (5,961,295) declared that they were born in a 

department other than the one where they were registered, and 0.6% (178881) in another 

country.251 

5.2% of households have relatives living abroad: Concerning migration in households, in 

the country, there are 8 million 252 thousand 284 households; of this total, 426 thousand 726 

households, in the last five years, have at least one person living permanently in another country 

(5.2% of the total number of households). Of the total number of households with international 

migration, 346,014 (81.1%) have between 1 and 2 members outside the national territory, 57,387 

(13.4%) have 3 to 4 members, and 23,325 (5.5%) have five or more people outside the 

country.252 

 
249 INEI, (2017). National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 
250 Ibid. 
251 Ibid. 
252 INEI, (2017, 2018). National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 



74 
 

60.2% of the population identified themselves as mestizo: For the first time in the history of 

the census, the question on Ethnic Self-Identification was included so that, of the 23,196,391 

inhabitants aged 12 and older, 60.2% (13,965,254 people) identified themselves as mestizo; 

5.9% (1,366,931) White and 3.6% (828,841) as Afro-descendant. Meanwhile, 22,534 identified 

themselves as Nikkei and 14,307 as Tusan. It should be noted that the other group includes 

254,892 people, while 771,026 people (3.3% of the total) did not respond to the question.253 

A quarter of the Peruvian population self-identified as indigenous (Quechua, Aymara, or 

native of the Amazon): The 2017 National Census revealed that 22.3% of the population aged 12 

and over (5,176,809) self-identified as Quechua and 2.4% (548,292) as Aymara. Likewise, 

79,266 people were registered as native or Indigenous of the Amazon, 55,489 as Ashaninka 

people, 37,690 as Awajún people, 25,222 as Shipibo Konibo, and 49,838 people said they were 

from another Indigenous or native people.254 

Women head 35.0% of households: Of the 8,252,284 households in the country, 65.3% are 

headed by men, equivalent to 5,385,269 households, while households headed by women 

represent 34.7% (2,867,015). In the intercensal period 2007-2017, households headed by men 

increased by 11.5% (553,490), with an average annual growth rate of 1.1%, 55,349 households 

per year. On the other hand, the number of households headed by women increased by 49.1% 

(944,720), with an annual rate of 4.1% (94,472 households).255 

76.0% of the population aged 12 and over is Catholic: According to the results of 2017, of 

the total population aged 12 and over, 17,635,339 (76.0%) people profess the Catholic religion, 

3,264,819 (14.1%) the Evangelical religion, 1,115,872 (4.8%) believe in another religion 

 
253 Ibid. 
254 Ibid. 
255 Ibid. 



75 
 

(Christian, Adventist, Jehovah's Witness and Mormon, Israelite, Buddhist, Judaist and Muslim), 

among others; while 1,180,361 (5.1%) have no religion. Compared to the results in 2007, the 

population professing the Catholic religion increased slightly by 4.0% (678,617 people), while 

the Evangelical population increased by 25.3% (658,764). Likewise, the population with another 

religion increased by 64.3% (436,581). Notably, Peruvians not professing religion increased by 

94.0% 256 

The population of working age concentrates 22,128,833 people: The population that is old 

enough (14 years and older) to perform an economic activity reached 22,128,833 people. That is, 

of every 100 people of the total censused population, around 75 are old enough to perform an 

economic activity. Compared to the 2007 results, the working-age population increased by 

2,482,181 people (12.6%), with an average annual growth rate of 1.2%. Notably, the working-

age population in urban areas reached 17,832,617 (76.5%) people, and in rural areas, 4,296,216 

people (70.8%). According to sex, of the total working-age population, 51.3% are women, 

equivalent to 11,363,041 people, and 48.7% are men, 10,765,792 people. Compared to the 

results in 2007, the Economic Active Population (EAP) grew by 3.6 percentage points from 

71.7% in 2007 to 75.3% in 2017. Likewise, greater participation of male EAP was observed 

(74.5%) compared to 2007 (70.9%), and in women, registering 76.1% in 2017 compared to 

72.4% in 2007.257 

35.3% of Economically Active People (EAP) are between 14 and 29 years old: Of the EAP 7 

million 818 thousand 534 (35.3%) are between 14 and 29 years old, 4,379,777 (19.8%) are 

between 30 and 39 years old, 3,660,378 (19.8%) are between 30 and 39 years old, and 1,660,378 

 
256 INEI, (2017, 2018). National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 
257 Ibid. 



76 
 

(19.8%) are between 30 and 39 years old. (16.6%) from 40 to 49 years old, 2,772,568 (12.5%) 

from 50 to 59 years old, and 3,497,576 (15.8%) of 60 and older.258 

Summarizing, census data is assumed to be a relatively reliable source for population 

statistics. This is crucial for understanding demographic dynamics, a fundamental aspect when 

examining socio-economic factors. Population statistics from the INEI are available for each 

province. The Peruvian population is currently estimated at 34,370,000, with a growth rate of 

0.95 per year, with slightly more women than men.259  

About 79% of the population reportedly lives in urban areas, which continues to attract 

young people from rural areas. “In a new report, the INEI calculated that some 596,000 more 

people had passed below the poverty line last year, bringing the total number of people living in 

poverty to some 9.8 million.”260  

The poverty rate has increased in the previous two years. In the Andean areas, over 80 

percent of the residents are estimated to lack water, electricity, and internet services.261 The 

unemployment rate is currently about 7 or 8 percent, down from almost 16.5 percent in 2020 

when the COVID era began.  

About 400,000 people are unemployed, with three in four workers operating in the informal 

sector.262 Emigration from Peru is principally due to the economic and political crisis, while 

immigrants from neighboring countries are due to the political and economic conditions in the 

region.263 

 

 
258 INEI, (2017, 2018). National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 
259 Idib. 
260Marco Aquino, “Peru’s Poverty Rate Ticks Up for a Second Straight Year,” Reuters, May 9, 2024, 1.  
261 Ibid. 
262 Trading Economics. (n.d.). Also see Focus Economics. (n.d.).  
263 Pighi Bel, P. (2003), n.p. According to the National Superintendence of Migration of Peru's figures, 110,185 

Peruvians left the country in 2021; 401,740 in 2022; and 415,393 by June 2023 who have not yet returned, 



77 
 

Education in Peru: 

Peru's pre-primary and primary school levels are relatively high compared to comparable 

countries. Still, the enrollment rate among students 15-19 is one of the lowest among partner 

countries.264   

34.0% of the Peruvian population has higher education: According to the level of education 

achieved, the results of the 2017 national census revealed that there are 21,627,833 people aged 

15 and older in the country; of this total, 1,840,525 (5.0%) have no level of education; 40,045 

(0.2%) have initial education; 4, 77,672 (19.3%) some degree of primary education; 8,926,121 

(41.3%) some year of secondary education; 3, 970, 249 (14.3%) achieved non-university higher 

education and 4, 259,805 (19.7%) university education.  

In the intercensus period 2007-2017, the population without educational level decreased by 

23.3% (328,812) and those with primary education by 5.5% (245,176). Meanwhile, those with 

initial education increased by 91.9% (19,177), secondary education by 22.7% (1,651,224), and 

those who achieved higher education, mainly those with university education, increased by 

39.6% (1,209,192).265 

The school-age population studying exceeds eight million: 8,308,860 people from 3 to 24 

years of age attend some school education center and represent 73.9% of the total population of 

said age group. By age group, in the population aged 3 to 5 years, 1,118,435 people (71.2%) of 

that age group attend an educational center. In the group aged 6 to 11, those from an academic 

center reached 3,560,620 (96.1%).  

In the group aged 12 to 16 years, 2,308,720 (91.3%) studied, and of those aged 17 to 24 

years, 1,825,085 (46.0%) attended an educational center. In the intercensal period 2007-2017, the 

 
264 OECD. (2023). n.p. Overview of the education system: Peru (EAG 2023). Education GPS. 
265 INEI, (2017, 2018). National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 



78 
 

school attendance rate for the 3-5 age group increased by 18.9 percentage points, from 52.3% in 

2007 to 71.2% in 2017. In the 6-11 age group, educational coverage increased between 2007 

(94.9%) and 2017 (96.1%).  

Attendance for the population aged 12-16 years increased by three percentage points, from 

88.3% to 91.3%; And among those aged 17 to 24, the proportion of students grew by 7.6 

percentage points, from 38.4% to 46.0%266 5.8% of the population aged 15 and over is 

illiterate: 1,262,075 people in the country aged 15 and over cannot read or write, equivalent to 

5.8% of the population in this age group. In the intercensal period 2007-2017, the illiteracy rate 

decreased by 1.3 percentage points (97,483 people).267 

4.2.Economic Poverty Map 2018 

The construction of the 2018 Provincial and District Monetary Poverty Map (See Figure 5) 

refers exclusively to monetary poverty. The definition of economic poverty is the same as that 

used to estimate poverty at the departmental level based on the National Household Survey 

(ENAHO):268 

Individuals are considered monetarily poor if they live in households where the monthly per 

capita expenditure is below the value of a basket of goods (poverty lines) that meet minimum 

needs. The expenditure estimation considers monetary and non-monetary expenses (self-

consumption, self-supply, donations, and transfers in kind and money, whether of private or 

public origin).269 

 

 
266 INEI, (2017, 2018). National Census results: XII Population, VII Housing, and III Indigenous Communities. 
267 Ibid. 
268 Consultative Commission on Poverty. (2020), p.3. 
269 Ibid. The changes introduced are the use of the total population from the 2017 census obtained from the 2017 

post-census survey and the estimated total employed population aged 14 and over, categorized by occupation and 

branch of activity. 2,824 households increased the sample size of the 2018 ENAHO to improve the accuracy of the 

2018 Monetary Poverty Map. 



79 
 

Table 5: Top-20 Districts 2018 Monetary Poverty Map 

 

Region Province District 
2018_Map 

Inf. 

2018_Map 

Sup. 
C.V. Group 

Total 

Population 

Ayacucho Huanta Uchuraccay 73.3 89.3 5 1 3,861 

Cajamarca Celendín Oxamarca 74.6 87.4 4 1 5,907 

Cajamarca Chota Anguía 71.7 85.7 4.5 1 3,385 

Ayacucho Huanta Pucacolpa 65.8 90.5 8 2 2,692 

Huancavelica Tayacaja Pichos 65.6 88.6 7.6 2 2,062 

Cajamarca 
San 

Marcos 
José Sabogal 69.8 84.2 4.8 2 13,023 

Cajamarca Cajabamba Cachachi 70.3 83.4 4.3 2 25,109 

Cajamarca Jaén Sallique 70.8 82.9 4 2 7,515 

Cajamarca Cutervo Cujillo 66.2 87.1 7 2 2,618 

Cajamarca Celendín Huasmin 68.6 83.7 5 2 11,279 

Cajamarca Celendín 
Miguel 

Iglesias 
68.2 83.4 5.1 2 4,078 

Cajamarca Cutervo Callayuc 68 83.3 5.2 2 9,722 

Cajamarca Cajamarca Encañada 67.5 82.3 5 2 20,568 

Cajamarca Cajamarca Chetilla 66.9 81.9 5.2 2 3,878 

Cajamarca Cajamarca Cospán 66.7 80.5 4.8 2 7,264 

Cajamarca Chota Miracosta 65.1 82.2 5.9 2 3,359 

Cajamarca Cutervo La Ramada 65.8 80.8 5.2 2 4,088 

Ayacucho Huanta Chaca 59.1 86.4 9.6 2 2,262 

Cajamarca Celendín Cortegana 64.8 79.7 5.3 3 7,449 

Cajamarca Cajabamba Sitacocha 65 79.5 5.1 3 8,121 

Source: INEI, (2020), p.15 

Ironically, Cajamarca dominates the list with 16 out of 20 districts, underscoring a pervasive 

and systemic poverty issue within this area (Table 5 above). Districts such as Oxamarca and 

Anguía exhibit alarmingly high poverty incidence rates, with lower and upper bounds ranging 

from 74.6% to 87.4% and 71.7% to 85.7%, respectively, indicating that a significant majority of 

their populations live under economic hardship. The relatively low Coefficient of Variation 

(C.V.) values, mostly between 4.0 and 5.2 for Cajamarca districts, suggest a high confidence 

level in these estimates, highlighting the reliability of the data presented.270  

 

 
270 INEI, (2020). Provincial and District Poverty Map 2018. p.15 



80 
 

Figure 12: 2018 Monetary-Poverty Map (District Level). 

 
Source: INEI, (2020), p.15 

 

This stark prevalence of poverty in Cajamarca contrasts with other regions like Ayacucho 

and Huancavelica, which have fewer districts listed but still show substantial poverty levels. The 

grouping classification further emphasizes the severity, with most Cajamarca districts falling 

under group 2, denoting high-priority areas for intervention. The significant total population 

figures, such as 25,109 in Cachachi and 20,568 in Encañada, reflect that large communities are 

enduring these economic challenges. These findings indicate an urgent need for targeted 

economic development and poverty alleviation programs within the Cajamarca region to address 

the deep-rooted and widespread deprivation affecting its inhabitants. 

Table 6 highlights the inclusion of various Peruvian cultural elements on the UNESCO List 

of Intangible Cultural Heritage. It underscores the recognition and protection these elements 

have received within Peru through their designation as Cultural Heritage of the Nation. This 

alignment of national and international recognition reflects Peru's strong commitment to 



81 
 

safeguarding its traditions, ensuring their continuity, and protecting them legally against the 

pressures of modernization and globalization.  

Table 6: Peruvian UNESCO-ICH Lists 

Year List Element  DICH 

2023 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Practices and meanings associated with the 
preparation and consumption of ceviche, an 
expression of Peruvian traditional cuisine 

RDN 241/INC-
2004 

2021 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Pottery-related values, knowledge, lore, and 
practices of the Awajún people 

RVM 009-2017-
VMPCIC 

2019 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

‘Hatajo de Negritos’ and ‘Hatajo de Pallitas’ 
from the Peruvian south-central coastline 

RVM 035-2012-
VMPCIC-MC 

2017 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

The traditional system of Corongo’s water 
judges 

RVM 093-2013-
VMPCIC-MC 

2015 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Wititi dance of the Colca Valley 
RDN 1011/INC-
2009 

2014 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Festivity of Virgen de la Candelaria of Puno 
RDN 655/INC-
2003 

2013 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Knowledge, skills, and rituals related to the 
annual renewal of the Q’eswachaka bridge 

RDN 1112/INC-
2009 

2011 
List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 
Need of Urgent Safeguarding 

Esuwa, Harakbut sung prayers of Peru’s 
Wachiperi people 

RDN 499/INC-
2010 

2011 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Pilgrimage to the sanctuary of the Lord of 
Qoyllurit’i 

RDN N° 
696/INC-2010 

2010 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Huaconada, ritual dance of Mito  
RDN 925/INC-
2003 

2010 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Scissors dance 
RDN 363/INC-
2005 

2009 
Register of Good Safeguarding 
Practices 

Safeguarding the intangible cultural heritage 
of Aymara communities in Bolivia, Chile and 
Peru 

RVM 284-2022-
VMPCIC/MC 

2008 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Oral heritage and cultural manifestations of 
the Zápara people   

  

2008 
Representative List of the Intangible 
Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Taquile and its textile art   

 

Source: UNESCO–ICH and Ministry of Culture of Peru. Elaborated by the author.271 272 

 
271 Peru – Intangible Heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO 
272 DICH as Cultural Heritage of the Nation 

http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/15_1.pdf?4986832
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/15_1.pdf?4986832
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/221_1.pdf?2694136
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/221_1.pdf?2694136
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/105_1.pdf?8003836
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/105_1.pdf?8003836
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/140_1.pdf?2738374
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/140_1.pdf?2738374
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/68_1.pdf?9779306
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/68_1.pdf?9779306
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/9_1.pdf?8240441
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/9_1.pdf?8240441
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/69_1.pdf?8790621
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/69_1.pdf?8790621
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/78_1.pdf?4224236
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/78_1.pdf?4224236
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/82_1.pdf?3762582
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/82_1.pdf?3762582
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/12_1.pdf?4542608
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/12_1.pdf?4542608
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/24_1.pdf?5622609
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/24_1.pdf?5622609
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/374_3.pdf?918092
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/374_3.pdf?918092
https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/peru-PE?info=elements-on-the-lists
http://www.administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp


82 
 

Preserving these elements supports social identity and community well-being, fostering a 

sense of pride and belonging among Peruvians. However, this recognition also brings challenges 

in the international arena:  

Recently, Bolivia accused Peru of appropriating traditional dances like the Diablada, 

Morenada, and Llamerada, integral to the Festivity of the Virgen de la Candelaria in Puno, 

leading to a campaign by Bolivian organizations to undermine Peru's cultural representation on 

platforms like UNESCO.273 This situation warns that cultural heritage, while a source of pride, 

can also be a point of contention internationally.274 It underscores the importance of a bottom-up 

approach for DICH to avoid nationalism, conflicts, and/or wars.275 

How have these designations impacted those involved and the economic measures 

implemented by the Ministry of Culture? Let me share with you my personal and professional 

story; after living in Trujillo, the capital of the La Libertad region and the heart of the “La 

Marinera” dance, where I earned my bachelor's degree in systems engineering, I returned to 

Cajamarca after eleven years. I came back to lay my beloved mother, Sabina Alfaro Vigo, to rest. 

However, this moment also marked a new beginning as I transitioned from being a culture 

volunteer to a culture manager. My mother was my primary source of knowledge, wisdom, and 

deep connection to Andean culture. She was the oldest of sisters (five sisters and one brother). 

She grew up as a farmer in "El Alizo," a small Andean community near the district of Cachachi 

(see Table 5) in the Province of Cajabamba, located in the Cajamarca region. She was directly 

instructed by my grandfather, Celso Alfaro Roncal, an “amaota”276 who specially taught their 

 
273 Espinoza A., (2024), n.p. 
274 Erill Soto, B. (2023), n.p. 
275 Ibid: According to Israel, the UNESCO decision gives legitimacy to the Palestinian Authority to claim territories 

that should be heritage under Israeli control. However, the director general of the Ministry of Tourism and 

Antiquities of Jericho considers it an optimistic decision that strengthens the Palestinian identity on a global level. 
276 Fray Domingo, (1951) p.226: “curious, witty, or wise man,” and p.38 “sharp-witted.” 



83 
 

school community about food sovereignty using the Andean cosmovision. He also instructed 

their children and students about history, traditional medicine, and construction methods such as 

“tica,”277 animal breeding, geography, traditional music, dance, and literature.  

I started volunteering at the Ministry of Culture just after this tragic milestone. I felt strongly 

attracted to my roots and blood connection to the traditional good way of life or “Kawsay.”278 At 

the end of November 2011, I introduced myself to the Decentralized Directorate of Culture’s 

directorate, then Architect Carla Diaz, and to the painter Jorge Lombardi, leader of the Cultural 

Promotion area, who gave me the first responsibility of developing a database of the volunteers, 

artists, groups and cultural associations in “Caxamarca” region.279  

Trujillo is one of the biggest cities in Peru, with over 1 million citizens in 2023.280 Not only 

is Trujillo a must-see place to visit because of its Spanish colonial architecture, Chan Chan, 

Huaca del Sol, and Huaca de la Luna, but it is also a culture-vibrant city. It is the capital of the 

spring season, celebrated with a big parade, and has hosted the National Competition of Marinera 

every year since 1960;281 Trujillo was declared the Marinera Capital City in 1986.282 Competing 

in that event was one of my childhood dreams, so I learned how to dance it and competed in 

local events in Cajabamba. This DICH kept me focused on that competition while daily terrorist 

attempts in the 1990s surrounded my reality.283 

Trujillo city breathes heritage. Until 2010, Trujillo had 19 DICH, counting the national, 

regional, provincial, and district declarations.284 That is why we often enjoyed and consumed the 

 
277 Fray Domingo, (1951) p. 35 “Adobe of clay or earth”; “tycani” and “tycani”: 1st, 2nd persons “To make adobes.” 
278 Fray Domingo (1951), p. 241, see “cauçaynin,” which means “life” or “the age of man's life.” 
279 Fray Domingo (1951), p. 134, “caxa,” which means “thorn,” and p. 84, “marca,” meaning “place or region.” 
280 INEI. (2023). p.23 
281 El Comercio. (2010). n.p. 
282 See Appendix 2, Law 24447. 
283 CVR. (2004a). p.4-12 
284 See Appendix 



84 
 

cultural agenda released by the INC of Trujillo until 2010. For instance, I will never forget my 

mother and I attending a painting exhibition by Corcuera and a theater play about the adaptation 

of José Miguel Arguedas's book Rios Profundos.285 Enjoying this cultural agenda was a 

mandatory mental health activity for my mother and me, coping with her neoplasia treatments. 

When I returned to Cajamarca at the end of 2011, it had a population of less than a quarter 

million citizens.286 The new Ministry of Culture, through the Decentralized Directorate of 

Culture of Cajamarca, did not offer a cultural agenda; however, the Cajamarca province had 18 

DICH, including district, province, regional, and national declarations.287 Starting in 2012, in my 

new role as one of the culture volunteers, I started promoting the cultural agenda using ICT.288 

4.3.Interviews with Ministry Officials regarding the DICH: 

As a response to my formal letter and request for information about the number of public 

servants and their Curriculum Vitae (see Appendix), the following Table 7 was elaborated by 

Ministry of Culture specialist Eric Marcelo Hernández Muñaqui that the Office of Intangible 

Assets endorses, with the details of the number of public servants in the areas of intangible cultural 

heritage in their respective region. 

At the national level, about my request to be provided with the curriculum vitae of the servers 

in question or of those who have more experience working in the field of intangible cultural 

heritage, I was informed that this Office of Intangible Assets is not authorized to provide said 

documentation since it does not work in our administrative files and that it would contain personal 

data of which its owners are the only ones who have the power to determine its treatment.  

 

 
285 Arguedas, J. M. (2023). Deep Rivers (Commemorative Edition). 
286 INEI. (2010). p.17 
287 See Appendix. 
288 Information and Communication Technology: webpage, social media, and local database with Access and Excel. 



85 
 

Table 7: Public Servants in the areas of Intangible Cultural Heritage by Region. 

 
Source: Elaborated by Ministry of Culture. 

 

On the other hand, at the regional level (see Appendix), the offices of Arequipa, Ayacucho, 

Cusco, The Constitutional Province of El Callao, and Piura have provided the following 

information:  

I received a letter as an official response from the Decentralized Directorate of Culture in 

Arequipa. It acknowledges the receipt and review of my document concerning the socioeconomic 

impacts of intangible cultural heritage preservation policies. Their response highlights the positive 

influence of these policies on national educational indicators and their broader social benefits. 

The letter also addresses my request for information about public servants working in the 

Intangible Heritage area. It provides the contact details and position of Rocio Margoth Córdova 

Panca, the Department of Cultural Industries and Arts Coordinator. 

Another letter dated April 18, 2024, from the Decentralized Directorate of Culture Ayacucho 

acknowledges receipt of a request for information and provides details about a public servant 



86 
 

working on intangible heritage matters. The professional is Phol Lopez Arango; the contact 

information, including email and phone number, is provided. The requested CV information is 

provided in the Appendix. The letter is signed digitally by German Salvador Martinelli Chuchon, 

representing the Directorate of Decentralized Culture Ayacucho. 

The letter dated May 8, 2024, is from the Decentralized Directorate of Culture Cusco, in 

response to my request for information about public servants working in the area of intangible 

heritage and the curricula vitae of those responsible or most experienced in this field; it states that 

five public servants work in the Coordination of Intangible Heritage in Cusco.  

In the letter dated April 17, 2024, from Piura, Cinthya Yrmina Cotlear Leon of the 

Decentralized Directorate of Culture Piura acknowledges my request for information about public 

servants working in the areas of intangible heritage in various regions. He provides specific details 

about Oswaldo Enrique Purizaga Zapata, the person in charge of the Intangible Heritage Unit in 

Piura. His contact details and position as Anthropologist II are included. The letter emphasizes the 

Directorate’s commitment to providing necessary information and support for the research. 

Mr. Augusto Zavala, Cultural Manager of the DDC Callao, responded to my request about the 

number of public servants working in the office of Intangible Cultural Heritage and the 

qualifications of leaders in this field. Zavala states that he is the sole official responsible for 

preparing research and reports on Intangible Cultural Heritage in Callao, which are sent to the 

national headquarters for heritage declarations. Zavala's qualifications include a bachelor’s in law 

and political science, a Master's in Museology and Cultural Management, and a specialization in 

Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage. Additionally, Zavala notes no identified leaders in 

Callao with training in Intangible Cultural Heritage. 



87 
 

The response highlights a significant gap in specialized personnel for Intangible Cultural 

Heritage in Callao, as Augusto Zavala is the only official handling these responsibilities. Despite 

his extensive qualifications, the lack of additional trained leaders could hinder more 

comprehensive cultural heritage initiatives in this unique province.  

The emphasis on Zavala's multidisciplinary background underscores the importance of diverse 

expertise in cultural heritage management. However, the absence of other trained professionals 

suggests a potential area for capacity building and recruitment to strengthen the preservation and 

promotion of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Callao. 

4.4.Regression Equations and Hypotheses: 

Building on the foundational research by Robert Barro (1991), contemporary empirical 

studies on economic growth have pinpointed numerous variables that exhibit partial correlations 

with economic growth rates.289 The standard approach involves conducting cross-sectional 

regressions in the following manner290: 

(1)    𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝛽1𝑥1 + 𝛽2𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝛽𝑛𝑥𝑛 +  𝜀 

In this methodology, 𝛾 represents the vector of economic growth rates, while 𝑥1,…, 𝑥𝑛 These 

are vectors of explanatory variables, which differ among researchers and studies.291 Each study 

generally presents a sample of the regressions conducted by the researcher, which may not be 

random.292 Variables such as initial income level, investment rate, various education metrics, 

some policy indicators, and many other factors have been identified as significantly correlated 

with growth in regressions similar to (1).293 

 
289 Xavier x. Sala-I-Martin (1997), p.178 
290 Ibid. 
291 Ibid. 
292 Ibid. 
293 Ibid. 



88 
 

In my exploratory regression model (2), 𝛾 = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦, the vector of economic 

growth rate will be inversely measured as the level of economic poverty at the province level. As 

explanatory variables, it incorporates population density, a dummy variable for the altitude over 

the Quechua geographical layer, education attainment at the secondary school level, 

unemployment rate, and the variable of interest, DICH (See Figure 6 and Appendix 1): 

(2)   𝛾 = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑃𝑜𝑣18 = 𝛼 + 𝛽1𝑃𝑜𝑝𝐷𝑒𝑛17 + 𝛽2𝐸𝑑𝑢𝑆𝑒𝑐17 + 𝛽3𝑈𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑜17 + 𝛽4𝐷𝐼𝐶𝐻𝐼𝑁𝐶10 +

𝛽5𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑎 + 𝜀 

Looking at the descriptive statistics (Table 2), high kurtosis indicates heavy tails. Applying 

logarithmic functional form, particularly for variables like Density17 and Unemp17, tends to 

mitigate the impact of the extreme values, making the statistical analyses more robust (Appendix 

2 and 3). The functional forms for variables like EconPov18, SecEdu17, and DICH_INC10 are 

linear. Quechua is a dummy variable, capturing binary categories of the communities’ altitudes 

above or below the Quechua layer (2300 m.a.s.l.). 

(3)   𝛾 = 𝐹(𝑋1) = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑃𝑜𝑣18 

X1: Population 2017. Hypothesis: A higher population may lead to less economic poverty due 

to an increased supply of resources, services, and the available infrastructure and less 

competition for jobs and resources. Indeed, the augmentation of both population size and density 

can act as a catalyst for economic growth. This phenomenon stems from the synergistic impact 

of economies of scale, decreased transportation costs, the generation of novel sources of wealth, 

heightened commercial interactions, and stimulation of innovation and technological development 

(Martin Guzman, 2005).  

X2: Quechua. Hypothesis: Areas located above the Quechua layer (Pulgar, 1987) might 

experience higher economic poverty due to the challenges associated with living at higher 

altitudes, such as service-accessibility issues and lower educational opportunities, which could 

impact economic well-being. Escalating social exclusion, extreme poverty, and inequality 



89 
 

disproportionately affect Andean communities. The economic outlook suggests that anticipated 

growth rates may not significantly contribute to achieving poverty reduction goals in the 

foreseeable future (Castellanos, 2007; Agostini et al., 2010). 

X3: DICH. Hypothesis: Areas with more Declarations of Intangible Cultural Heritage might 

experience lower economic poverty. Preserving and promoting cultural heritage can attract 

tourism and create cultural industries, contributing to economic development and poverty 

reduction (Croes et al., 2015; Seyfi et al., 2018).   

X4: Education Secondary School. Hypothesis: Higher levels of secondary school education 

in the population may lead to lower economic poverty. Education is often associated with 

increased employment opportunities, skills development, and economic well-being. Empirical 

analysis shows that university education significantly reduces absolute poverty (Chaudhry, 2010). 

The inverse relationship between university education and poverty highlights its effectiveness as 

a powerful tool for alleviation. As higher education levels increase, there is a corresponding 

decrease in economic poverty (Chaudhry, 2010). 

X5: Unemployment Rate. Hypothesis: Higher unemployment rates are likely associated with 

higher economic poverty. A lack of employment opportunities can lead to income inequality and 

financial instability, contributing to overall economic hardship. A study spanning 1980 to 2015 

employs Trend graph analysis, Correlation coefficient analysis, and Granger causality tests, 

revealing a substantial positive correlation and establishing a causal relationship where 

unemployment Granger causes poverty. Economic implications underscore the escalation of 

poverty with rising unemployment (Okorie et al., 2017). A second study, covering 1980 to 2016, 

utilizes Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) and diagnostic tests, confirming the significant 

impact of unemployment and poverty on economic growth in both short and long runs (Anderu, 

2021). 

 

 



90 
 

4.5.Gathered and presented data: 

Table 8: Dependent Variables, Data Source, and Coefficient Signs 

 

Independent Units Data Source Sign 

 

 

 

Population 

Density 

 

 

 

Log of Population 

Density at the province 

level. 

INEI. (2017) “Resultados Definitivos de 

la Población Económicamente Activa 

2017 – Censos Nacionales 2017.” Censos 

Nacionales 2017. 

https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-

definitivos-de-la-poblacion-

economicamente-activa-2017/. Accessed 

13 Dec, 2023. 

 

 

- 

 

 

Altitude 

(Quechua 

Layer) 

 

 

Altitude <2300masl = 0 

 

Altitude >=2300masl = 1 

INEI. “PERÚ: ESTADÍSTICAS DEL 

MEDIO AMBIENTE.” Instituto Nacional 

de Estadística e Informática - INEI, 2013, 

https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRec

ursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib11

73/cap01/cap01012.xls. Accessed 12 

Dec, 2023. 

 

 

+ 

Declarations 

of Intangible 

Cultural 

Heritage 

(DICH) 

 

Number of declarations 

in the province, counting 

the regional and national 

ones. 

Ministerio de Cultura. “Declaratorias del 

Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación.” 

http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intra

net/dpcn/consulta.jsp. Accessed 12 

December 2023. 

 

- 

 

Secondary 

Education 

(SecEdu17) 

 

 

Percentage of the 

Population in the labor 

force with a Secondary 

Education Degree. 

INEI. (2017) “Resultados Definitivos de 

la Población Económicamente Activa 

2017 – Censos Nacionales 2017.” Censos 

Nacionales 2017. 

https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-

definitivos-de-la-poblacion-

economicamente-activa-2017/. Accessed 

13 Dec, 2023. 

 

 

- 

 

 

 

LogUnemp17 

(Unemplo17) 

 

 

Log of a percentage of 

the Population in the 

labor force who are 

unemployed. 

INEI. (2017) “Resultados Definitivos de 

la Población Económicamente Activa 

2017 – Censos Nacionales 2017.” Censos 

Nacionales 2017. 

https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-

definitivos-de-la-poblacion-

economicamente-activa-2017/. Accessed 

13 Dec, 2023. 

 

 

+ 

Source: Elaborated by the author. 

https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1173/cap01/cap01012.xls.
https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1173/cap01/cap01012.xls.
https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1173/cap01/cap01012.xls.
http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp.
http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/consulta.jsp.
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/
https://censo2017.inei.gob.pe/resultados-definitivos-de-la-poblacion-economicamente-activa-2017/


91 
 

Table 9: Independent Variable and Data Source 

Dependent Units Data Source 

 

Economic 

Poverty 

(EcoPov18)  

 
 

Percentage of Economic 

Poverty in the province. 

INEI. (2018) “Provincial and District 

Monetary Poverty Map 2018”.  

https://www.gob.pe/institucion/inei/informes

-publicaciones/3204872-mapa-de-pobreza-

provincial-y-distrital-2018. Accessed 13 Dec, 

2023. 

Source: Elaborated by the author. 

4.6. Descriptive Statistics: 

Variables with skewness close to 0 and kurtosis close to 3, and where the mean and median 

are relatively close, are considered closer to normal distribution. In this dataset, the variables 

SecEdu17, LnUnemp17, DICH_INC09, DICH_INC10, DICH_MC11, DICH_MC13, 

DICH_MC14, and Quechua are relatively close to a normal distribution (see Table 10): 

Table 10: Descriptive Statistics for Exploratory Models. 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

VARIABLE N Mean p50 Variance Min Max Skewness Kurtosis 

EcoPov18 196 34.57756 35.24783 209.4988 3.006715 67.74237 -0.2171772 2.314266 

LnEconPov18 196 3.413 3.562396 0.3440392 1.100848 4.215712 -1.563585 5.579574 

Pop17 196 153230.1 55548.5 3.93E+11 2860 8574974 12.50926 167.8177 

LnPop17 196 10.98792 10.92501 1.355151 7.958577 15.96436 0.4953064 4.226219 

Density17 196 91.08426 21.56619 323018.5 0.2577354 7144.788 10.95265 129.0225 

LnDensity17 196 2.957107 3.07106 1.834823 -1.355822 8.874139 0.2775896 5.860611 

SecEdu17 196 40.17966 40.007 36.97035 24.78704 55.6265 -0.2066854 2.872008 

Unemplo17 196 6.409815 5.865703 11.65841 1.816941 26.02811 2.49313 11.65573 

LnUnemp17 196 1.75399 1.769118 0.1923884 0.5971543 3.259177 0.4739432 4.019569 

DICH_INC09 196 6.714286 7 1.764103 4 11 0.6921359 3.495944 

DICH_INC10 196 6.846939 7 1.955939 4 11 0.7702941 3.534335 

DICH_MC11 196 6.913265 7 2.171926 4 12 0.911266 3.975972 

DICH_MC13 196 7.418367 7 3.59843 4 15 0.9422073 3.902554 

DICH_MC14 196 7.617347 7 4.422057 4 15 0.9464768 3.631673 

DICH_MC15 196 9.02551 9 5.142936 5 18 0.9919495 4.090403 

DICH_MC16 196 12.2602 12 5.46528 8 21 0.9833138 3.992169 

Altitude 196 2026.434 2630 2086304 3 4342 -0.2770616 1.44496 

LnAltitude 196 6.820228 7.874739 3.217087 1.098612 8.37609 -1.255103 3.436995 

Quechua 196 0.5612245 1 0.2475144 0 1 -0.2467548 1.060888 

https://www.gob.pe/institucion/inei/informes-publicaciones/3204872-mapa-de-pobreza-provincial-y-distrital-2018
https://www.gob.pe/institucion/inei/informes-publicaciones/3204872-mapa-de-pobreza-provincial-y-distrital-2018
https://www.gob.pe/institucion/inei/informes-publicaciones/3204872-mapa-de-pobreza-provincial-y-distrital-2018


92 
 

4.7.Multiple regression model: 

LogPopDen17, Quechua, DICH, SecEdu17, and LogUnemp17 comprehensively examine 

the relationships involving the factors influencing EconPov18 over time (See Table 11 and Table 

12). A meticulous selection process was employed to arrive at the final best-fitted model. Firstly, 

"literature on economic growth has identified a substantial number of variables"294 which ensures 

a thorough exploration of potential factors, avoiding biases. Incorporating the Dummy variable 

Quechua aligns with the 8-region theory,295 contributing geographical diversity to the analysis.  

Table 11: Exploratory Regression Models 

  (1) (2) (3) (4) 

VARIABLES EcoPov18 EcoPov18 EcoPov18 EcoPov18 

LnDensity17 -1.354** -1.332** -1.335** -1.399*** 
 (0.527) (0.518) (0.521) (0.536) 

SecEdu17 -1.393*** -1.392*** -1.391*** -1.411*** 
 (0.124) (0.123) (0.123) (0.124) 

LnUnemp17 7.574*** 7.747*** 7.712*** 7.294*** 
 (1.673) (1.66) (1.665) (1.664) 

DICH_INC09 -0.963    

 (0.596)    

DICH_INC10  -1.202**   

  (0.539)   

DICH_MC11   -1.057**  

   (0.517)  

DICH_MC15    -0.365 
    (0.343) 

Quechua 8.276*** 8.339*** 8.301*** 7.866*** 
 (1.638) (1.585) (1.595) (1.617) 

Constant 83.07*** 84.40*** 83.56*** 81.48*** 
 (6.122) (6.12) (6.062) (6.003) 
     

Observations 196 196 196 196 

R-squared 0.575 0.58 0.578 0.572 

Standard errors in parentheses 

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 

   

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 
294 Xavier x. Sala-I-Martin (1997), p.178 
295 Pulgar-Vidal, Javier. (2014) Geography of Peru. The eight natural regions, 12th ed. 



93 
 

 

The variable transformation was also implemented, including logarithmic adjustments to 

address outliers (e.g., Lima). Finally, selecting the best model involved a holistic evaluation, 

incorporating scatter plots, residual plots, t and p values, bias analysis, and adjusted R-squared 

values (See Appendix).  

Table 12: Regression model: DICH_INC10 

 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

    F(5,190)= 52.5 

Model 23698.7356 5 4739.74713  Prov>F = 0 

Residual 17153.5219 190 90.2816943  R-squared= 0.5801 

    Adj. R-squared= 0.5691 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757  Root MSE= 9.5017 

       

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf. interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.331832 0.5179391 -2.57 0.011 -2.353481 -0.3101824 

SecEdu17 -1.391763 0.1227245 -11.34 0 -1.633841 -1.149686 

LnUnemp17 7.746757 1.659733 4.67 0 4.472887 11.02063 

DICH_INC10 -1.201999 0.5390003 -2.23 0.027 -2.265192 -0.1388059 

Quechua 8.339118 1.585179 5.26 0 5.212308 11.46593 

_cons 84.39866 6.120175 13.79 0 72.32644 96.47088 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

4.8.Significance of the individual explanatory variables: 

The signs of the coefficients in Table 12 are consistent with all the hypotheses: 

LogDensity17: The negative coefficient suggests that higher population density tends to be 

associated with lower economic poverty. The t-value of -2.57 indicates that this coefficient is 

statistically significant at the 0.01 level, proving that the LogPop17 variable is a meaningful 

predictor of economic poverty. The p-value of 0.01 further supports this, as it is less than 0.05. 

Quechua: The positive coefficient suggests that provinces above the Quechua layer tend to 

be associated with more economic poverty. The t-value of 5.26 indicates that this coefficient is 

statistically significant at the 0.01 level, proving that the Quechua variable is a meaningful 



94 
 

predictor of economic poverty. The p-value of 0.000 further supports this, as it is less than 0.05, 

indicating a statistically significant relationship.  

DICH_INC10: The negative coefficient suggests a negative relationship, meaning more 

declarations are associated with lower economic poverty. The t-value of -2.23 and the p-value of 

0.03 indicate that this relationship is statistically significant at the 0.05 level.  

SecEdu17: The negative coefficient indicates that a higher percentage of the population with 

secondary school degrees is associated with lower economic poverty. The t-value of -11.34 and 

the p-value of 0.000 suggest that this relationship is statistically significant at the 0.01 level.  

LogUnemp17: The positive coefficient indicates that a higher unemployment rate is 

associated with higher economic poverty. The t-value of 4.67 and the p-value of 0.000 suggest 

that this relationship is statistically significant at the 0.01 level.  

4.9.Regression-coefficient interpretation:  

LogPop17: The coefficient for LogPop17 is -2.146349, and the Confidence Interval is [-

3.471, -0.820] (95% confidence). This suggests that holding other variables constant, a one-unit 

increase in log-transformed population in 2017 is associated with a decrease of approximately 

2.146 percentage units in Economic Poverty in 2018. 

Quechua: The coefficient for the Quechua variable (Province above or below 2300 masl) is 

6.473057, and the Confidence Interval is [3.918, 8.988] (95% confidence). This suggests that 

holding other variables constant, provinces located above the Quechua layer have, on average, a 

6.47 percentage points higher economic poverty rate than provinces below the Quechua layer.  

DICH_INC10: The coefficient for the variable representing Declarations of Intangible 

Cultural Heritage is -1.428342, and the Confidence Interval is [-2.579, -0.276] (95% confidence). 



95 
 

This implies that, on average, the economic poverty rate is expected to decrease by 1.43 

percentage points for each additional declaration of intangible cultural heritage. 

SecEdu17: The coefficient for the variable representing the percentage of the population 

with secondary school degrees is -1.286053, and the Confidence Interval is [-1.537, -1.034] 

(95% confidence). This implies that holding other variables constant, a one-unit increase in the 

percentage of the population with secondary school degrees (measured in percentage points) is 

associated with, on average, a decrease of 1.29 percentage points in the economic poverty rate.  

LogUnemp17: The coefficient for the variable representing the unemployment rate is 

8.545749, and the Confidence Interval is [5.147, 11.944] (95% confidence). This implies that 

holding other variables constant, a one-unit increase in the log-transformed unemployment rate is 

associated with an increase of approximately 8.546 units in Economic Poverty in 2018. 

Table 13: Exploratory Regression Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC10_Beta 

 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(5,190)= 52.5 

Model 23698.7356 5 4739.74713   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 17153.5219 190 90.2816943   R-squared= 0.5801 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.5691 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.5017 

       

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std. err. t P>|t| Beta 

LnDensity17 -1.331832 0.5179391 -2.57 0.011  -0.1246395 

SecEdu17 -1.391763 0.1227245 -11.34 0  -0.5846574 

LnUnemp17 7.746757 1.659733 4.67 0  0.234757 

DICH_INC10 -1.201999 0.5390003 -2.23 0.027  -0.1161425 

Quechua 8.339118 1.585179 5.26 0  0.2866353 

_cons 84.39866 6.120175 13.79 0   
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

 

 

 

 



96 
 

4.10. Standardized Beta Coefficients 

The standardized beta coefficients measure the relative importance of each predictor 

variable in terms of standard deviations. Quechua has the highest standardized beta coefficient, 

indicating it has the most decisive relative impact on economic poverty among the predictors. 

SecEdu17 has the second-highest standardized beta coefficient, indicating a strong impact on 

economic poverty (See Table 13). 

The magnitudes of the coefficients appear plausible in the context of the variables being 

measured. For example, the positive coefficient for Quechua aligns with expectations that higher 

elevations might be associated with economic challenges. The negative coefficients for 

DICH_INC10, SecEdu17, and LogPop17 align with expectations, suggesting that factors such as 

cultural heritage declarations, higher secondary education, and higher population density are 

associated with lower economic poverty. Nonetheless, the wide confidence intervals suggest 

some uncertainty in the estimates. 

4.11. Growth-Theory Correlation and Interpretation: 

The challenge for empirical growth economists is that growth theories do not specify which 

variables should be included in the "true" regression model; even if it is accepted that the "true" 

model resembles equation (1), there is uncertainty about which specific variables 𝑥𝑗  should be 

used296. When running regressions with different combinations of variables, a variable 𝑥1 might 

appear significant when included with 𝑥2 and 𝑥3, but become nonsignificant when 𝑥4 is added.297 

Due to the uncertainty about which variables should be included, economists are left with the 

question: which variables genuinely correlate with growth?298 

 
296 Xavier x. Sala-I-Martin (1997), p.178 
297 Ibid. 
298 Ibid. 



97 
 

As Xavier X. Sala-I-Martin highlighted in 1997, one of the first responses to this issue was 

provided by Ross Levine and David Renelt (1992) using regression models such as:299  

(4)    𝛾 = 𝜶𝑗 + 𝜷𝑦𝑗𝒚 + 𝛽𝑧𝑗𝑧 + 𝜷𝑥𝑗𝒙𝑗 +  𝜀 

“where 𝛾 is a vector of variables that always appear in the regressions (in the Levine and Renelt 

paper, these variables are the initial level of income, the investment rate, the secondary school  

enrollment rate, and the rate of population growth), 𝑧 is the variable of interest, and 𝑥𝑗 ∈ 𝑋 is a 

vector of up to three variables taken from the pool 𝑋 of 𝑁 variables available.”300 Levine and 

David Renelt (1992) “applied Edward Leamer´s (1985) extreme-bounds test to identify “robust” 

empirical relations in the economic growth literature.”301  

In the case of my second model being 𝑧, the variable of interest (Economic Poverty), I have 

not made a robustness test, so I have not run two million regressions.302 However, I have used 

the 𝛾 vector of three variables that always appear in the regressions, Population, Education, and 

Unemployment, and three from the “pool 𝑋 of 𝑁 variables available,”303 Altitude, Life 

Expectancy, and Birth Rate, leading to this model: 

(5)𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑃𝑜𝑣18 = 𝛼 + 𝛽1𝐿𝑛𝑃𝑜𝑝𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦17 + 𝛽2𝐸𝑑𝑢𝑆𝑒𝑐17 + 𝛽3𝑈𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑜17

+ 𝛽4𝐷𝐼𝐶𝐻+𝛽5𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑎 + 𝛽6𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒𝐸𝑥𝑝18 + 𝛽7𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒18 + 𝜀 

Two of the X variables, life expectancy, and lower fertility, were selected because they are 

considered determinants304 of economic growth.305 306 While common, those old models might 

be misleading; controlling Fertility, in particular, may not always align with positive outcomes. 

 
299 Xavier x. Sala-I-Martin (1997), p.178  
300 Ibid. 
301 Ibid. 
302 Ibid. 
303 Ibid. 
304 Barro, R. (1997). p.2 and p.13 
305 Barro, R. (1991).  
306 Barro, R. (1997). 



98 
 

Table 14: Descriptive Statistics of Variables for New Models. 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Table 15: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC10 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 44.78 

Model 25536.4009 7 3648.05728   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15315.8566 188 81.4673225   R-squared= 0.6251 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6111 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.0259 

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.319393 0.513907 -2.57 0.011 -2.333159 -0.3056281 

SecEdu17 -1.192763 0.1239824 -9.62 0 -1.437339 -0.9481879 

LnUnemp17 6.906776 1.613087 4.28 0 3.724699 10.08885 

DICH_INC10 -1.466068 0.5170048 -2.84 0.005 -2.485944 -0.4461924 

Quechua 11.14563 1.677377 6.64 0 7.836736 14.45453 

LifeExp18 -0.2491395 0.0936946 -2.66 0.009 -0.4339674 -0.0643117 

LnBirthRate18 5.163211 1.252187 4.12 0 2.693069 7.633353 

_cons 94.44374 8.903826 10.61 0 76.8795 112.008 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Table 16: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC10_beta 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 44.78 

Model 25536.4009 7 3648.05728   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15315.8566 188 81.4673225   R-squared= 0.6251 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6111 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.0259 

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std. err. t P>|t| Beta 

LnDensity17 -1.319393 0.513907 -2.57 0.011  -0.1234755 

SecEdu17 -1.192763 0.1239824 -9.62 0  -0.5010607 

LnUnemp17 6.906776 1.613087 4.28 0  0.2093023 

DICH_INC10 -1.466068 0.5170048 -2.84 0.005  -0.141658 

Quechua 11.14563 1.677377 6.64 0  0.3831019 

LifeExp18 -0.2491395 0.0936946 -2.66 0.009  -0.1313313 

LnBirthRate18 5.164468 1.240824 4.16 0  0.2146753 

_cons 94.44374 8.903826 10.61 0 .  
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA 

VARIABLE N Mean p50 Variance Min Max Skewness Kurtosis 

LifeExp18* 196 73.9075 74.785 58.21469 46.54 93.11 -0.7159025 3.760555 

LnLifeExp18 196 4.297124 4.314617 0.0118964 3.840312 4.533782 -1.11026 4.81664 

BirthRate18 196 1.719371 1.664744 0.7913998 0.0403848 6.350365 1.396077 7.423694 

LnBirthRate18 196 0.3953873 0.5096686 0.3619882 -3.209301 1.848512 -1.514903 9.157713 



99 
 

The standardized beta coefficients in Table 16 indicate the relative importance of each 

predictor variable in influencing economic poverty, measured in terms of standard deviations. 

Among the predictors, Quechua has the highest standardized beta coefficient (0.383), indicating 

the most significant impact on economic poverty. SecEdu17, with a beta coefficient of -0.501, 

also has a substantial adverse effect, suggesting that higher levels of secondary education 

correlate with reduced economic poverty. 

In Tables 13 and 16, the variable coefficients align with expectations. The positive 

coefficient for Quechua suggests that communities over the Quechua layer are associated with 

increased economic poverty, reflecting the challenges native communities face. Conversely, the 

negative coefficients for LnDensity17, SecEdu17, DICH_INC10, and LifeExp18 suggest that 

higher population density, better education, cultural heritage declarations, and higher life 

expectancy are linked to lower economic poverty. However, the relatively wide confidence 

intervals indicate some uncertainty in these estimates. 

DICH_INC10 has a negative coefficient (-1.4661) and a standardized beta of -0.1417, 

indicating that areas with cultural heritage declarations (DICH) tend to experience lower levels 

of economic poverty. The negative relationship suggests cultural heritage designation might be 

linked to improved economic conditions. However, its impact is relatively modest compared to 

other model variables, and this must be critically evaluated. Specifically, the significant effect of 

birth rates on poverty levels should be addressed with caution. Manipulating birth rates to control 

economic outcomes poses serious ethical risks, potentially leading to demographic imbalances 

and infringing on community rights. Sustainable solutions should prioritize education, 

healthcare, and economic opportunities, which can naturally influence birth rates while 

respecting cultural values and avoiding the ethical dangers of direct interventions. 



100 
 

Table 17: DICH and Growth-Theory Regression Models 

  (1) (2) (3) (4) 

VARIABLES EcoPov18 EcoPov18 EcoPov18 EcoPov18 

LnDensity17 -1.343** -1.319** -1.316** -1.326** 
 (0.523) (0.514) (0.516) (0.536) 

SecEdu17 -1.193*** -1.193*** -1.189*** -1.208*** 
 (0.126) (0.124) (0.125) (0.126) 

LnUnemp17 6.787*** 6.907*** 6.910*** 6.473*** 
 (1.63) (1.613) (1.617) (1.62) 

DICH_INC09 -1.256**    

 (0.572)    

DICH_INC10  -1.466***   

  (0.517)   

DICH_MC11   -1.354***  

   (0.497)  

DICH_MC15    -0.607* 
    (0.334) 

Quechua 11.17*** 11.15*** 11.20*** 10.80*** 
 (1.735) (1.677) (1.691) (1.715) 

LifeExp18 -0.238** -0.249*** -0.248*** -0.250** 
 (0.0943) (0.0937) (0.0939) (0.096) 

LnBirthRate18 5.163*** 5.164*** 5.231*** 5.141*** 
 (1.252) (1.241) (1.244) (1.257) 

Constant 92.31*** 94.44*** 93.45*** 91.51*** 
 (8.909) (8.904) (8.845) (8.955) 

Observations 196 196 196 196 

R-squared 0.619 0.625 0.624 0.616 

Standard errors in parentheses 

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA 

 

In the case of Peru, during Alberto Fujimori's administration, forced sterilizations were 

carried out systematically, predominantly affecting impoverished Andean women, particularly in 

the rural Andean regions,307 by the National Reproductive Health and Family Planning 

Program308, which emerged from the military's Plan Verde;309 aimed at economic recovery310 and 

 
307 BBC News, (2002) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm.  
308 Boesten, (2007), p.6 
309 Gaussens, P., (2020), p.186 
310 Boesten, (2007), p.7. 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm


101 
 

addressing the Shining Path insurgency, the program has faced widespread condemnation as 

ethnic cleansing or genocide because of its disproportionately severe impact on rural and native 

populations. 311 312 

The roots of this program can be traced to early 20th-century population control policies 

and eugenics theories that emerged in Peru.313 Under Fujimori's regime, these ideas were greatly 

intensified, with sterilizations being defended as a strategy to reduce poverty and enhance 

resource distribution by lowering birth rates among those deemed culturally “backward”314 and 

economically disadvantaged communities. Although there were assertions of voluntary 

participation, many women were sterilized without their informed consent, frequently under 

duress or in return for food and medical care.315 This forced sterilization campaign resulted in 

enduring socio-economic and health repercussions for the impacted communities.316 It severely 

impacted rural economies, worsened poverty, and caused widespread human rights abuses.317 

Attempts to secure justice for the victims have encountered many challenges, including 

resistance from the government and legal hurdles.318 Efforts to hold perpetrators accountable and 

provide reparations for the forced sterilizations of over 300,000 Peruvians in the 1990s have 

been insufficient despite international and national condemnation.319 The Inter-American 

Commission on Human Rights is now reviewing the case of Edith Ramos, a deceased victim of 

forced sterilization under Fujimori's regime. It will conduct a new trial with the Peruvian state.320 

 
311 Carranza Ko, (2020) p.90 
312CVR, (2004) p. 94. Also see CVR, (2003), n.p. 
313 Ewig, C., (2006), p. 633. Also see Uchoa, (2021), n.p. 
314 Boesten, (2007), p.16 
315 Sims, C., (1998), n.p.  
316 CVR, (2003), n.p. 
317 Ewig, (2006), p.253 
318 Sims, C., (1998), n.p. 
319 OAS, (2023), n.p. 
320 Lujan, (2023), n.p. 



102 
 

Conclusion 

The thorough examination of the multiple regression model provides significant insights into the 

determinants of economic poverty in 2018. Firstly, the correlation between Population Size 

(LogPop17) and economic poverty aligns with expectations, suggesting that higher population 

density is associated with lower economic poverty. This implies that larger populations may 

contribute to economic growth by enhancing resource availability and infrastructure 

development. Secondly, the positive coefficient for Altitude (Quechua) confirms the hypothesis 

that regions above the Quechua layer experience higher economic poverty, emphasizing the 

challenges related to service accessibility and educational opportunities in high-altitude areas. 

Thirdly, the negative coefficient for Cultural Heritage Declarations (DICH_INC10) supports the 

hypothesis that a higher number of declarations of intangible cultural heritage is linked to lower 

economic poverty, highlighting the role of cultural preservation in sustainable development. 

Additionally, the negative coefficient for Secondary Education (SecEdu17) underscores the 

importance of higher secondary education in reducing economic poverty. Finally, the positive 

coefficient for the Unemployment Rate (LogUnemp17) validates the hypothesis that higher 

unemployment rates contribute to higher economic poverty, emphasizing the role of employment 

opportunities in mitigating income inequality and financial instability.  

4.12. Implications for Planning and Public Policy 

The research findings offer valuable guidance for shaping effective planning and public policy 

interventions. Investing in secondary education emerges as a critical strategy for poverty 

alleviation, emphasizing the pivotal role of educational initiatives in fostering economic well-

being. Promoting cultural heritage emerges as another key avenue, signifying the potential of 

cultural preservation efforts as effective economic development strategies. Furthermore, the 

imperative to address unemployment underscores the significance of comprehensive 



103 
 

employment programs in reducing economic poverty. Collectively, these insights provide a 

foundation for targeted policy measures to foster sustainable development and mitigate the 

impact of poverty. 

4.13. Additional Data and Model Improvement 

While this study is comprehensive, additional data on specific cultural and economic factors 

could enhance the model. For example, detailed information on cultural practices and financial 

activities related to cultural heritage would provide a more nuanced understanding. Furthermore, 

the study addresses omitted variable bias, influential data points, and heteroscedasticity concerns. 

Advanced methods could further refine the model for causation analysis. 

Future research endeavors should delve into various dimensions to enrich our understanding of 

economic poverty's complex dynamics. Exploring temporal dynamics would involve scrutinizing 

changes over time, allowing for identifying evolving patterns. A spatial analysis incorporating 

more geographic variations can provide localized insights and acknowledge the diverse regional 

influences on poverty. Evaluating the impact of cultural policies on poverty reduction through a 

dedicated Cultural Policy Impact Assessment can shed light on the effectiveness of existing 

strategies. Additionally, integrating qualitative data would complement quantitative findings, 

offering a nuanced and richer understanding of the multifaceted factors influencing economic 

poverty. This holistic approach provides a robust analysis of factors affecting economic poverty 

under the sustainability lens, offering valuable implications for policymakers and researchers. 

The findings underscore the interconnectedness of social, environmental, economic, and cultural 

variables in shaping the poverty landscape. 



104 
 

CONCLUSION 

In theory, research findings should guide effective planning and policy.  This thesis hypothesizes 

that promoting intangible cultural heritage can become an effective economic development 

strategy.  Hence, the discussion began by explaining through a literature review how the thinking 

about cultural heritage developed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.  The second 

chapter showed how the Peruvian government’s heritage institutions changed, especially after 

World War II, as it interacted with international specialists in foreign ministries of culture.  The 

third chapter focused on non-material heritage and the development of intangible cultural 

designations, four hundred of which have been identified, with twelve recognized by the World 

Heritage Convention.  This led to the first investigation of how recognizing and preserving 

intangible cultural heritage can impact the local economy, especially benefiting people with low 

incomes in the high Andes.   

The absence of reliable data in a largely informal economy, particularly with intangible cultural 

heritage, frustrates assembling a more complete picture.  Peru is divided into twenty-five regions, 

with an average of seven provinces per region.  Assuming more time could be spent assembling 

information in the field, future studies might explore the effectiveness of legal and institutional 

frameworks in different regions, assessing how they facilitate or hinder heritage preservation. 

Comparative analyses could illuminate the best practices for integrating legal and governance 

aspects supporting cultural heritage initiatives. 

 Exploring the correlation between tangible and intangible heritage indicators and the tourism 

industry could affect tourism management.  Policymakers and local authorities can use this 

information to develop strategies for sustainable cultural tourism, enhancing the overall tourism 

experience and its positive impact on local economies.  Future work may delve deeper into 

understanding the dynamics between cultural heritage and tourism, exploring how various 



105 
 

cultural elements contribute to the attractiveness of destinations and the overall tourism 

experience. 

Another avenue for further study is how community participation is regenerated before, during, 

and after intangible cultural practices occur.  This emphasis on community participation could 

inspire future studies to explore how involving communities in heritage preservation can lead to 

more sustainable and culturally sensitive outcomes.  Researchers may wish to investigate 

different models of community engagement and participation in heritage initiatives. 

Other areas for further exploration, such as ethnic identity and the maintenance of cultural 

practices, may inspire scholars to delve into how ethnic identity influences heritage preservation 

strategies and how cultural heritage contributes to the expression and preservation of diverse 

identities within communities. 

Summary of overall research results 

The thorough examination of the multiple regression model reveals significant insights into 

the determinants of poverty in 2018.  First, higher population density is correlated with lower 

poverty, suggesting there are several contributions to economic growth. Second, regions above the 

Quechua layer experience higher poverty due to challenges in service accessibility and education. 

Third, more declarations of intangible cultural heritage are associated with lower economic 

poverty, emphasizing cultural preservation's role. Fourth, higher levels of secondary education 

reduce poverty. Finally, higher unemployment rates contribute to higher poverty, highlighting the 

importance of employment opportunities in mitigating income inequality and financial instability. 

While broadly based, the study suggests that additional data on specific cultural and 

economic factors could enhance the model. Addressing concerns like omitted variable bias and 

influential data points, the refinement might use advanced methods for causation analysis. Future 



106 
 

research should explore temporal dynamics for evolving patterns and incorporate a spatial analysis 

for localized insights. Evaluating cultural policies' impact on poverty reduction through Cultural 

Policy Impact Assessment is recommended. The integration of qualitative data is suggested to 

provide a nuanced understanding of multifaceted factors influencing economic poverty. This 

holistic approach underscores the interconnectedness of social, environmental, economic, and 

cultural variables in shaping the poverty landscape, offering valuable implications for 

policymakers and researchers. 

While existing literature discusses the theoretical and policy aspects of cultural heritage, my 

study contributes by empirically examining the economic, social, and cultural benefits of 

preserving both tangible and intangible heritage in the Peruvian Andes. This empirical 

approach adds a practical dimension to the discourse, providing concrete evidence of the impacts 

of heritage preservation efforts. 

While this study is comprehensive, additional data on specific cultural and economic equity 

factors (GINI) could enhance the research. For example, detailed information on cultural 

practices and economic activities related to cultural heritage would provide a more nuanced 

understanding. Even though the study addresses omitted variable bias, influential data points, 

and heteroscedasticity concerns, advanced methods could further refine my model(s) for future 

causation analysis. 

Future research endeavors should explore various dimensions to enrich our understanding of 

sustainability's complex dynamics. For instance, exploring temporal dynamics would involve 

scrutinizing changes over time before and after the establishment of the Ministry of Culture in 

2010, allowing for identifying evolving patterns. A spatial analysis incorporating more 

geographic variations can provide localized insights and acknowledge the diverse regional 



107 
 

influences on poverty. Evaluating the impact of cultural policies on poverty reduction through a 

dedicated Cultural Policy Impact Assessment can shed light on the effectiveness of existing 

strategies. Additionally, integrating qualitative data from the interviews would complement 

quantitative findings, offering a nuanced and richer understanding of the multifaceted factors 

influencing economic poverty.  

GDP has significant limitations, including its distortion by exchange rate fluctuations and 

differences in development levels, which affect the composition and quality of goods and 

services. Additionally, GDP only accounts for recorded market transactions, overlooking 

household production, which can make poorer countries appear worse off than they are.321 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
321 Rokicka, E. (2014), p. 12. 



108 
 

APPENDIX 

 

Appendix 1: DICH: Marinera_1986 

 
 

 

 



109 
 

Appendix 2: Trujillo City_Marinera Capital City_Law 24447 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



110 
 

Appendix 3: Evolution of Society and the State in Ancient Peru. 

 

 
 

Source: Luis Guillermo Lumbreras (2013). 

 

 

 

 

 



111 
 

Appendix 4: EcoPoverty-2018 Histogram 

 
 Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 5: DICH_INC10 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



112 
 

Appendix 6: DICH_MC14_ Histogram 

 
 Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 7: Quechua_Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



113 
 

Appendix 8: Altitude_Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 9: LnAltitude_Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



114 
 

Appendix 10: Pop17 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 11: LnPop17 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



115 
 

Appendix 12: Density17 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 13: Density17 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



116 
 

Appendix 14: Unemployment  Histogram 

 
 Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 15: LnUnemp17 Histogram 

 
 Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



117 
 

Appendix 16: SecEdu17 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 17: BirthRate18 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



118 
 

Appendix 18: LnBirthRate18 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

Appendix 19: LifeExp18 Histogram 

 
Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



119 
 

Appendix 20: Scatter Plot: Altitude vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



120 
 

Appendix 21: Scatter Plot: BirthRate18 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 



121 
 

Appendix 22: Scatter Plot: DICH_MC15 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



122 
 

 

Appendix 23: Scatter Plot: LnBirthRate18 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



123 
 

Appendix 24: Scatter Plot: Quechua vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 



124 
 

 

Appendix 25: Scatter Plot: Density17 vs EcoPov18 (Labels) 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



125 
 

Appendix 26: Scatter Plot: DICH_INC10 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



126 
 

Appendix 27: Scatter Plot: DICH_INC10 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



127 
 

Appendix 28: Scatter Plot: LnDensity17 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



128 
 

 

Appendix 29: Scatter Plot: LnPop17 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



129 
 

Appendix 30: Scatter Plot: Pop17 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 

 

 



130 
 

Appendix 31: Scatter Plot: SecEdu17 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 



131 
 

Appendix 32: Scatter Plot: Unemplo17 vs EcoPov18 

 

 

 
  

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 

 



132 
 

Appendix 33: Scatter Plot: Fitted values vs Residuals 

 

 

 
 

 

 



133 
 

 

 
 

Source: Elaborated by the author using STATA. 



134 
 

Appendix 34: Exploratory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC09 

 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

    F(5,190)= 51.4 

Model 23488.4912 5 4697.69825  Prov>F = 0 

Residual 17363.7663 190 91.3882439  R-squared= 0.575 

    Adj. R-squared= 0.5638 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757  Root MSE= 9.5597 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.354363 0.5267592 -2.57 0.011 -2.39341 -0.3153154 

SecEdu17 -1.392542 0.1243911 -11.19 0 -1.637907 -1.147177 

LnUnemp17 7.573628 1.672723 4.53 0 4.274134 10.87312 

DICH_INC09 -0.9625007 0.5955042 -1.62 0.108 -2.137149 0.212148 

Quechua 8.276332 1.638227 5.05 0 5.044883 11.50778 

_cons 83.06797 6.121683 13.57 0 70.99278 95.14316 

 

 

Appendix 35: Exploratory Regression Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC11 

 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

    F(5,190)= 52.13 

Model 23628.2283 5 4725.64567  Prov>F = 0 

Residual 17224.0292 190 90.6527854  R-squared= 0.5784 

    Adj. R-squared= 0.5673 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757  Root MSE= 9.5212 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.335361 0.5205953 -2.57 0.011 -2.362249 -0.3084718 

SecEdu17 -1.391436 0.1232128 -11.29 0 -1.634476 -1.148395 

LnUnemp17 7.711542 1.665489 4.63 0 4.426318 10.99677 

DICH_MC11 -1.057367 0.5174842 -2.04 0.042 -2.078119 -0.0366145 

Quechua 8.3015 1.59513 5.2 0 5.155061 11.44794 

_cons 83.55865 6.062445 13.78 0 71.60031 95.51699 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



135 
 

Appendix 36: Exploratory Regression Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC15 

 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

    F(5,190)= 50.72 

Model 23353.9342 5 4670.78685  Prov>F = 0 

Residual 23353.9342 5 4670.78685  R-squared= 0.5717 

    Adj. R-squared= 0.5604 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757  Root MSE= 9.5967 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.399314 0.5355318 -2.61 0.01 -2.455665 -0.3429623 

SecEdu17 -1.41063 0.1240114 -11.37 0 -1.655246 -1.166014 

LnUnemp17 7.293988 1.663634 4.38 0 4.012422 10.57555 

DICH_MC15 -0.3646706 0.3428675 -1.06 0.289 -1.040986 0.3116452 

Quechua 7.86572 1.617445 4.86 0 4.675265 11.05618 

_cons 81.47741 6.002901 13.57 0 69.63652 93.3183 

 

 

Appendix 37: Exploratory Regression Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC11_Beta 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(5,190)= 52.13 

Model 23628.2283 5 4725.64567   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 17224.0292 190 90.6527854   R-squared= 0.5784 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.5673 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.5212 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| Beta 

LnDensity17 -1.335361 0.5205953 -2.57 0.011  -0.1249698 

SecEdu17 -1.391436 0.1232128 -11.29 0  -0.5845197 

LnUnemp17 7.711542 1.665489 4.63 0  0.2336899 

DICH_MC11 -1.057367 0.5174842 -2.04 0.042  -0.1076607 

Quechua 8.3015 1.59513 5.2 0  0.2853422 

_cons 83.55865 6.062445 13.78 0 .  
 

 

 

 



136 
 

Appendix 38: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC09 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 43.6 

Model 25280.7312 7 3611.53303   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15571.5264 188 82.8272679   R-squared= 0.6188 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6046 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.1009 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.342962 0.5231116 -2.57 0.011 -2.374885 -0.3110394 

SecEdu17 -1.193321 0.1260672 -9.47 0 -1.442009 -0.9446324 

LnUnemp17 6.787457 1.629774 4.16 0 3.572462 10.00245 

DICH_INC09 -1.255524 0.5717356 -2.2 0.029 -2.383366 -0.1276828 

Quechua 11.16883 1.734599 6.44 0 7.747055 14.59061 

LifeExp18 -0.2380806 0.094284 -2.53 0.012 -0.4240711 -0.0520901 

LnBirthRate18 5.163211 1.252187 4.12 0 2.693069 7.633353 

_cons 92.30712 8.909474 10.36 0 74.73173 109.8825 

 

Appendix 39: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC11 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 44.56 

Model 25488.7202 7 3641.24575   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15363.5373 188 81.7209433   R-squared= 0.6239 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6099 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.04 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.315519 0.5159815 -2.55 0.012 -2.333376 -0.297661 

SecEdu17 -1.188616 0.1245829 -9.54 0 -1.434376 -0.9428558 

LnUnemp17 6.910257 1.617471 4.27 0 3.719531 10.10098 

DICH_MC11 -1.354283 0.4967462 -2.73 0.007 -2.334196 -0.3743707 

Quechua 11.20071 1.690672 6.63 0 7.865586 14.53583 

LifeExp18 -0.2481388 0.0938553 -2.64 0.009 -0.4332837 -0.062994 

LnBirthRate18 5.231289 1.244453 4.2 0 2.776402 7.686176 

_cons 93.45268 8.845221 10.57 0 76.00404 110.9013 

 

 

 



137 
 

Appendix 40: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC15 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 43.05 

Model 25157.0785 7 3593.86836   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15695.179 188 83.4849949   R-squared= 0.6158 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6015 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.137 

       
EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| [95% conf.interval] 

LnDensity17 -1.325836 0.5357235 -2.47 0.014 -2.382638 -0.2690342 

SecEdu17 -1.208063 0.1260264 -9.59 0 -1.456671 -0.9594556 

LnUnemp17 6.473459 1.620241 4 0 3.27727 9.669648 

DICH_MC15 -0.606917 0.3339333 -1.82 0.071 -1.265655 0.0518208 

Quechua 10.79874 1.715128 6.3 0 7.415375 14.18211 

LifeExp18 -0.2495772 0.0960384 -2.6 0.01 -0.4390285 -0.0601259 

LnBirthRate18 5.141372 1.257484 4.09 0 2.66078 7.621964 

_cons 91.51339 8.955145 10.22 0 73.84791 109.1789 

 

 

Appendix 41: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_INC09_beta 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 43.6 

Model 25280.7312 7 3611.53303   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15571.5264 188 82.8272679   R-squared= 0.6188 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6046 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.1009 

              

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| Beta 

LnDensity17 -1.342962 0.5231116 -2.57 0.011  -0.1256811 

SecEdu17 -1.193321 0.1260672 -9.47 0  -0.5012948 

LnUnemp17 6.787457 1.629774 4.16 0  0.2056865 

DICH_INC09 -1.255524 0.5717356 -2.2 0.029  -0.1152116 

Quechua 11.16883 1.734599 6.44 0  0.3838993 

LifeExp18 -0.2380806 0.094284 -2.53 0.012  -0.1255017 

LnBirthRate18 5.163211 1.252187 4.12 0  0.214623 

_cons 92.30712 8.909474 10.36 0   
 

 



138 
 

Appendix 42: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC11_beta 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 44.56 

Model 25488.7202 7 3641.24575   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15363.5373 188 81.7209433   R-squared= 0.6239 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6099 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.04 

              

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| Beta 

LnDensity17 -1.315519 0.5159815 -2.55 0.012  -0.1231128 

SecEdu17 -1.188616 0.1245829 -9.54 0  -0.4993184 

LnUnemp17 6.910257 1.617471 4.27 0  0.2094078 

DICH_MC11 -1.354283 0.4967462 -2.73 0.007  -0.1378927 

Quechua 11.20071 1.690672 6.63 0  0.384995 

LifeExp18 -0.2481388 0.0938553 -2.64 0.009  -0.1308038 

LnBirthRate18 5.231289 1.244453 4.2 0  0.2174529 

_cons 93.45268 8.845221 10.57 0   
 

 

Appendix 43: Growth-Theory Regression_Economic Poverty vs DICH_MC15_beta 

Source SS df MS Number of obs=  196 

        F(7,188)= 43.05 

Model 25157.0785 7 3593.86836   Prov>F = 0 

Residual 15695.179 188 83.4849949   R-squared= 0.6158 

        Adj. R-squared= 0.6015 

Total 40852.2576 195 209.498757   Root MSE= 9.137 

              

EcoPov18 Coefficient Std.err. t P>|t| Beta 

LnDensity17 -1.325836 0.5357235 -2.47 0.014  -0.1240784 

SecEdu17 -1.208063 0.1260264 -9.59 0  -0.5074879 

LnUnemp17 6.473459 1.620241 4 0  0.1961711 

DICH_MC15 -0.606917 0.3339333 -1.82 0.071  -0.095092 

Quechua 10.79874 1.715128 6.3 0  0.3711784 

LifeExp18 -0.2495772 0.0960384 -2.6 0.01  -0.131562 

LnBirthRate18 5.141372 1.257484 4.09 0  0.2137152 

_cons 91.51339 8.955145 10.22 0   
 

 



139 
 

Appendix 44: Omitted Variable Bias (OVB) 

 

Ramsey RESET test for omitted variables 

 

Omitted: Powers of fitted values of EconPov18 

H0: Model has no omitted variables 

F(3, 187) =   2.19 

Prob > F = 0.0908 

 

The Ramsey RESET test serves as a valuable diagnostic tool for identifying potential omitted variable bias 

(OVB) or misspecification of the functional form within the regression model. The test results yield an F-

statistic of 2.19, with associated degrees of freedom (3, 187) and a probability (Prob > F) of 0.0908. The p-

value exceeds the conventional significance level of 0.05, leading to the non-rejection of the null 

hypothesis. Consequently, there is insufficient evidence to conclude the existence of omitted variables or 

incorrect functional forms in the model. This suggests that the coefficients in the original model are deemed 

to have a plausible magnitude and correct sign according to the Ramsey RESET test.  

 

Appendix 45: Correspondence with the Ministry of Culture 

 

 

Arequipa, April 25, 2024 

 

Mr. JHON ROGER COTRINA ALFARO 

Asociación Miski Pacha 

ANTONIO ASTOPILCO 277, CAJAMARCA-CAJAMARCA-CAJAMARCA 

Present. 

 

Subject: FINAL RESULTS OF THE FIRST PHASE OF INVESTIGATION: INTANGIBLE 

HERITAGE AND SUSTAINABILITY 

Reference: FILE No. 0050043-2024 (12APR2024) 

 

Dear Mr. Cotrina Alfaro, 

I am pleased to address you to respond to the referenced document and consider your final analysis 

on the socioeconomic impacts of intangible heritage preservation policies. Considering that the 

efforts of cultural heritage preservation improve educational indicators at the national level, 

highlighting the multifaceted impact of heritage preservation on social well-being. 

In response to your request regarding the public servants working in the area of Intangible 

Heritage of the Decentralized Directorate of Culture of Arequipa, we must point out the following: 

 



140 
 

● Specialist: Hist. Rocio Margoth Córdova Panca (Contact: 951 924 631) 

● Position: Coordinator of the Department of Cultural Industries and Arts. 

 

Her resume has been sent to the email jrc449@cornell.edu. For further coordination, you can 

write to rcordova@cultura.gob.pe. 

Without further ado, I take this opportunity to express my consideration and esteem. 

 

Sincerely, 

 

Digitally signed document 

HAROLD JOSEPH LOLI ROSALES 

DECENTRALIZED DIRECTORATE OF CULTURE AREQUIPA 

 

 

Ayacucho, April 18, 2024 

 

Mr./Ms.: 

JHON ROGER COTRINA ALFARO 

Present 

 

Subject: INFORMATION ON PUBLIC SERVANT IN THE AREA OF INTANGIBLE HERITAGE 

Reference: FILE No. 50043-2024 

 

I am pleased to address you and extend my cordial greetings. In response to the referenced 

document, the Decentralized Directorate of Culture of Ayacucho currently has one (01) 

professional working on intangible heritage matters, detailed as follows: 

 

● PHOL LOPEZ ARANGO 

DNI: 71872070 

EMAIL: lopezphol79@gmail.com 

PHONE: 999080458 

 

It should be noted that the requested CV information has been sent to the email address 

JRC449@CORNELL.EDU. 

Without further ado, I take this opportunity to express my consideration and deferential esteem. 

 

Sincerely, 

 

Digitally signed document 

GERMAN SALVADOR MARTINELLI CHUCHON 

DIRECTION OF DECENTRALIZED CULTURE AYACUCHO 

 

 

 

 

 



141 
 

Cusco, May 8, 2024 

 

OFFICIAL LETTER No. 002284-2024-AFACGD/MC 

 

Mr.: 

JHON ROGER COTRINA ALFARO 

Address: Antonio Astopilco 277, Cajamarca-Cajamarca-Cajamarca 

Cell Phone: +1 607 444 2382 – 945145471 

Email: JRC449@CORNELL.EDU 

CAJAMARCA 

 

SUBJECT: RESPONSE TO REQUEST 

REFERENCE: File No. 0050043-2024 

 

Dear Sir, 

Following a cordial greeting and on behalf of the Director of the Decentralized Directorate of 

Culture of Cusco of the Ministry of Culture, I am writing to you in response to the referenced 

document in which you request information about the number of public servants working in the 

areas of intangible heritage and the curricula vitae of those responsible for these areas or those 

with the most experience in ICH (Intangible Cultural Heritage). 

In this regard, the Coordination of Intangible Heritage, through Report No. 000144-2024-

CPI/MC, indicates the following: 

 

● Regarding point a: There are five public servants working in the Coordination of 

Intangible Heritage, who implement the safeguarding policies of ICH in the department 

of Cusco. 

● Regarding point b: You should contact the professional servant Gary Ingrid Huamaní 

Rodríguez via the institutional email: gihuamanir@culturacusco.gob.pe. 

 

Thank you for taking the above into consideration. 

 

Sincerely, 

 

Digitally signed document 

TERESA DE JESÚS OTAZU MENDOZA 

FUNCTIONAL AREA FOR CITIZEN ATTENTION AND DOCUMENTARY  MANAGEMENT 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mailto:JRC449@CORNELL.EDU


142 
 

Piura, April 17, 2024 

 

Mr. JHON ROGER COTRINA ALFARO 

ANTONIO ASTOPILCO 277 

CAJAMARCA 

 

Subject: FINAL RESULTS OF THE FIRST PHASE OF THE RESEARCH: INTANGIBLE 

HERITAGE AND SUSTAINABILITY 

Reference: REGISTRATION No. 2024-0050043 

 

Dear Sir, 

It is my pleasure to cordially greet you and, in response to your request for information regarding 

the number of public servants working in the areas of Intangible Heritage in each region, as well 

as the curricula vitae of the leaders of these areas and/or those with the most experience in 

Intangible Heritage, to inform you that the Intangible Heritage Unit of the Decentralized 

Directorate of Culture of Piura of the Ministry of Culture provides the following information: 

Intangible Heritage Unit of the Decentralized Directorate of Culture of Piura 

 

● Person in charge: Oswaldo Enrique Purizaga Zapata 

● Position: Anthropologist II 

● Email: opurizaga@cultura.gob.pe 

● Contact number: 913 309 422 

 

Without further ado, I remain at your disposal. 

 

Sincerely, 

 

Digitally signed document 

CINTHYA YRMINA COTLEAR LEON DECENTRALIZED DIRECTORATE OF CULTURE 

PIURA 

 

Callao, April 23, 2024 

 

Dear Mr. Cotrina, 

Greetings from Augusto Zavala, Cultural Manager of the DDC Callao. In relation to your letter 

dated April 12, addressed to the Vice Minister of Cultural Heritage and Cultural Industries of the 

Ministry of Culture, in which you request information from the DDCs nationwide about the number 

of public servants working in the area of Intangible Cultural Heritage in each region, as well as 

the curriculum vitae of the leaders of the areas and/or those with the most experience working in 

Intangible Cultural Heritage. 

 

Regarding this, we inform you that at DDC CALLAO, the undersigned (among many other 

functions) is the only official responsible for preparing research and reports on the Intangible 

Cultural Heritage of the Callao Region, reports that are sent to the headquarters for the 

declaration of various Callao expressions as Cultural Heritage of the Nation. 



143 
 

The professional background of the undersigned is a Bachelor's degree in Law and Political 

Science; a Master's in Museology and Cultural Management, with a specialization in 

Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage, along with several diplomas and courses on the 

subject taken in the country and abroad. 

 

Likewise, we inform you that we have not identified any leaders in Callao with training in 

Intangible Cultural Heritage. 

 

 

Without further ado, we remain at your service. 

 

Augusto Zavala Rojas Cultural Manager, Interculturality Officer Decentralized Directorate of 

Culture of Callao Ministry of Culture 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



144 
 

PROVINCE DICH

91 

DICH

96 

DICH

01 

DICH

04 

DICH

06 

DICH

08 

DICH

09 

DICH

10 

DICH

11 

DICH

13 

DICH

14 

DICH

15 

DICH

16 

Huancavelica 1 1 3 10 12 17 18 18 18 21 24 29 32 

Andahuaylas 1 1 3 10 14 21 22 22 22 26 26 27 30 

Chumbivilcas 1 1 3 10 12 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 30 

Cusco 1 1 3 10 12 19 21 22 22 22 24 26 30 

Azángaro 1 1 3 11 12 18 19 20 20 21 23 25 29 

Caylloma 1 1 3 10 12 18 20 20 21 23 25 26 29 

Jauja 1 1 3 9 11 18 20 20 22 24 24 25 29 

Arequipa 1 1 3 10 12 18 20 20 20 22 24 25 28 

Calca 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 22 25 28 

Chiclayo 1 2 4 12 14 20 21 21 22 23 23 25 28 

Huancayo 1 1 3 9 12 19 20 20 20 22 23 24 28 

Puno 1 1 3 11 12 18 19 19 19 21 21 22 28 

Acobamba 1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 20 21 24 27 

Canas 1 1 3 9 11 17 20 21 21 22 22 24 27 

Concepción 1 1 3 10 13 19 20 20 20 22 23 24 27 

Espinar 1 1 3 10 12 18 19 20 20 22 22 24 27 

Huamalíes 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 20 21 23 27 

Huamanga 1 1 3 10 13 19 21 21 21 22 22 23 27 

Paucartambo 1 1 3 9 12 19 20 21 22 22 22 24 27 

Urubamba 1 1 3 9 11 19 22 22 22 22 22 24 27 

Abancay 1 1 3 9 12 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 26 

Antabamba 1 1 3 10 13 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 26 

Chupaca 1 1 3 9 12 18 19 19 19 21 22 23 26 

Huarmey 1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 21 21 22 26 

Huaytará 1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 19 20 22 26 

Lambayeque 1 2 4 10 12 18 19 19 19 21 21 23 26 

Lampa 1 1 3 12 13 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 26 

Lucanas 1 1 3 10 14 20 21 21 21 22 22 23 26 

Quispicanchi 1 1 3 10 12 18 19 20 20 20 20 23 26 



145 
 

Sánchez 

Carrión 

1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 18 19 20 22 26 

Tayacaja 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 20 20 23 26 

Trujillo 1 2 4 11 13 18 19 19 19 20 21 23 26 

Angaraes 1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 20 20 22 25 

Aymaraes 1 1 3 10 13 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 25 

Chepén 1 2 4 10 12 17 18 18 18 19 19 22 25 

Churcampa 1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 20 20 22 25 

Ferreñafe 1 2 4 10 12 18 19 19 19 19 19 21 25 

Grau 1 1 3 9 12 18 19 19 19 21 21 22 25 

Huancané 1 1 3 10 11 17 18 18 18 18 19 21 25 

Huánuco 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 18 21 25 

Junín 1 1 3 10 12 18 19 19 19 21 21 22 25 

Lima  2 2 4 10 13 19 20 20 20 20 20 21 25 

Mariscal 

Nieto 

1 1 3 10 11 17 18 20 20 20 21 22 25 

Parinacochas 1 1 3 9 12 18 19 19 19 21 21 22 25 

Pasco 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 18 20 21 22 25 

Páucar del 

Sara Sara 

1 1 3 9 12 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 25 

Piura 1 2 4 11 12 17 18 19 19 20 20 22 25 

Puerto Inca 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 19 19 19 19 20 25 

San Román 1 1 3 10 11 17 18 18 19 20 20 21 25 

Ascope 1 2 4 10 12 17 18 18 18 19 19 21 24 

Canchis 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 19 19 19 19 21 24 

Caravelí 2 2 4 10 12 17 18 18 18 19 20 21 24 

Chincheros 1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 20 20 21 24 

Chucuito 1 1 3 10 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 24 

Corongo 1 1 3 9 11 18 19 19 19 20 20 21 24 

Cotabambas 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 20 21 24 



146 
 

Daniel 

Alcides 

Carrión 

1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 18 20 20 21 24 

Huari 1 1 3 9 11 17 20 20 20 20 20 21 24 

La 

Convención 

1 1 3 9 11 17 18 19 19 19 19 21 24 

Lauricocha 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 24 

Melgar 1 1 3 10 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 24 

Otuzco 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 21 24 

Pacasmayo 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 19 21 24 

Paruro 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 19 21 24 

Tarma 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 20 21 24 

Acomayo 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Aija 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Anta 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 18 18 18 20 23 

Antonio 

Raimondi 

1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Asunción 1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Bolívar 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 18 20 23 

Cajabamba 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Cajamarca 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Camaná 2 2 4 10 12 17 18 18 18 18 19 20 23 

Cañete 2 2 4 10 12 18 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Cangallo 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Carabaya 1 1 3 10 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Carlos 

Fermín 

Fitzcarrald 

1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Casma 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Castilla 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 19 20 23 



147 
 

Castrovirrey

na 

1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 18 20 23 

Chanchamay

o 

1 1 3 9 11 17 18 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Condesuyos 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 19 20 23 

General 

Sánchez 

Cerro 

1 1 3 10 11 17 18 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Huanca 

Sancos 

1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Huanta 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Huaraz 1 1 3 9 11 18 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Huarochirí 1 1 3 9 12 18 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Huaura 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 23 

Huaylas 1 1 3 9 11 18 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Islay 2 2 4 10 12 17 18 18 18 18 19 20 23 

La Mar 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Leoncio 

Prado 

1 1 3 9 11 16 17 18 18 18 18 19 23 

Morropón 1 2 4 11 12 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Paita 1 2 4 11 12 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Pallasca 1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Pomabamba 1 1 3 9 11 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Recuay 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 19 20 23 

San Antonio 

de Putina 

1 1 3 11 12 17 18 18 18 18 19 20 23 

San Marcos 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 23 

Santa 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Santiago de 

Chuco 

1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 18 20 23 

Satipo 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Sechura 1 2 4 11 12 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 



148 
 

Sihuas 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 23 

Sucre 1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Sullana 1 2 4 11 12 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Tacna 2 2 4 11 12 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 23 

Talara 1 2 4 11 12 17 18 18 18 18 18 20 23 

Víctor 

Fajardo 

1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Vilcas 

Huamán 

1 1 3 9 12 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Virú 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 18 18 20 23 

Yauli 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Yauyos 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 23 

Yunguyo 1 1 3 10 11 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 23 

Ambo 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Atalaya 1 1 3 9 9 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Ayabaca 1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 17 17 19 22 

Barranca 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Bolognesi 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 22 

Carhuaz 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 22 

Celendín 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Chincha 2 2 4 10 10 16 17 17 17 18 18 19 22 

Chota 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Contumazá 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Coronel 

Portillo 

1 1 3 9 9 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Cutervo 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Datem del 

Marañón 

1 1 3 9 9 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Dos de Mayo 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

El Collao 1 1 3 10 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Gran Chimú 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 



149 
 

Huacaybamb

a 

1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Hualgayoc 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Huaral 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Ica 2 2 4 10 10 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Jaén 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Jorge 

Basadre 

2 2 4 10 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Julcán 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

La Unión 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 18 19 22 

Marañón 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Mariscal 

Luzuriaga 

1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 22 

Moho 1 1 3 10 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Ocros 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 22 

Oxapampa 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 18 18 18 18 19 22 

Pachitea 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Padre Abad 1 1 3 9 9 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Pataz 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

San Ignacio 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

San Miguel 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

San Pablo 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Santa Cruz 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Tambopata 1 1 3 9 9 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Tumbes 1 2 4 11 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 19 22 

Ucayali 1 1 3 9 9 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Yarowilca 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 22 

Yungay 1 1 3 9 11 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 22 

Alto 

Amazonas 

1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 21 

Bagua 1 1 3 9 10 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 



150 
 

Bellavista 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Cajatambo 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Candarave 1 1 3 9 10 15 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Canta 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Chachapoyas 1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 21 

Condorcanqu

i 

1 1 3 9 10 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Contralmiran

te Villar 

1 2 4 10 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 18 21 

El Dorado 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Huallaga 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Huancabamb

a 

1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 18 21 

Ilo 2 2 4 10 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Lamas 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Manu 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Mariscal 

Cáceres 

1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Moyobamba 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Oyón 1 1 3 9 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Pisco 2 2 4 10 10 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Prov Callao  1 1 3 9 9 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 21 

San Martín 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 21 

Sandia 1 1 3 10 11 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 21 

Bongará 1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Loreto 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Luya 1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Mariscal 

Ramón 

Castilla 

1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Maynas 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 



151 
 

Nazca 2 2 4 10 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Picota 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Purús 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Putumayo a/ 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Requena 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Rioja 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Rodríguez de 

Mendoza 

1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Tahuamanu 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Tarata 1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Tocache 1 1 3 9 9 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Utcubamba 1 1 3 9 10 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 20 

Zarumilla 1 1 3 9 9 14 15 15 15 15 15 17 20 

Palpa 1 1 3 9 9 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 19 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



152 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix 46: Model DataSet 

 

PROVINCE EcoPov18 Pop17 Density17 SecEdu17 Unemplo17 DICH_INC10 DICH_MC14 Quechua LifeExp18 BirthRate18 

Abancay 35.11 110520 30.97 35.83 7.57 7 10 1 73.29 2.63 

Acobamba 39.87 38208 88.77 38.63 5.97 6 9 1 74.86 1.76 

Acomayo 37.56 22940 29.03 36.11 6.20 6 6 1 53.58 1.03 

Aija 30.16 6316 11.08 40.12 3.49 6 6 1 58.15 0.74 

Alto Amazonas 40.33 122725 6.49 39.09 5.89 4 4 0 75.8 3.56 

Ambo 39.13 50880 36.00 34.49 4.58 5 5 1 75.09 1.93 

Andahuaylas 45.76 142477 42.82 38.25 6.65 10 14 1 82.41 2.00 

Angaraes 46.18 49207 32.95 38.67 8.77 6 8 1 71.18 1.80 

Anta 29.13 56206 30.15 45.19 6.39 5 6 1 76.18 0.75 

Antabamba 33.78 11310 4.15 40.17 6.49 9 10 1 46.54 0.29 

Antonio 

Raimondi 40.56 13650 28.85 41.15 3.72 7 7 1 71.55 1.15 

Arequipa 10.36 1080635 102.38 38.30 6.07 8 12 1 78.15 1.89 

Ascope 22.14 115786 45.61 46.10 4.63 6 7 0 77.65 1.17 

Asunción 34.16 7378 16.47 37.79 6.39 7 7 1 71.36 1.63 

Atalaya 36.46 49324 1.40 37.48 5.89 5 5 0 57.12 4.48 

Ayabaca 53.58 119287 27.09 31.32 6.04 4 5 1 62.78 1.97 

Aymaraes 38.81 24307 7.87 38.97 7.64 8 9 1 65.26 0.70 

Azángaro 41.35 110392 27.84 42.42 12.71 8 11 1 63.94 1.29 

Bagua 33.87 74100 13.63 39.14 5.74 5 5 0 77.7 3.59 

Barranca 12.97 144381 108.58 47.04 4.05 5 5 0 84.55 1.97 

Bellavista 33.18 55033 7.57 38.43 3.56 5 5 0 73.91 2.03 



153 
 

Bolívar 51.98 14457 9.63 31.89 2.67 5 6 1 82.67 2.18 

Bolognesi 29.57 23797 10.52 43.26 5.76 6 6 1 68.51 0.74 

Bongará 34.81 25637 11.96 35.95 2.30 4 4 1 73.04 0.99 

Cajabamba 58.34 75687 44.56 25.11 4.53 6 6 1 80.84 2.22 

Cajamarca 58.23 348433 131.93 32.47 6.92 6 6 1 75.26 2.57 

Cajatambo 31.03 6559 5.07 42.83 4.69 5 5 1 68.28 0.56 

Calca 37.16 63155 16.94 39.51 5.94 6 10 1 74.05 1.40 

Camaná 13.60 59370 15.04 46.67 5.73 6 7 0 85.54 2.02 

Canas 47.90 32484 18.87 39.91 21.56 9 10 1 57.9 0.77 

Canchis 33.27 95774 25.67 37.52 7.96 7 7 1 80.97 1.99 

Candarave 25.12 6102 3.54 44.50 8.86 5 5 1 70.59 0.46 

Cañete 13.41 240013 52.30 49.36 4.68 7 7 0 83.02 1.92 

Cangallo 50.52 30443 17.94 38.67 5.41 6 7 1 85.78 1.69 

Canta 17.97 11548 8.92 49.64 2.68 5 5 1 76.1 0.74 

Carabaya 50.26 73322 8.01 45.41 15.17 6 7 0 62.49 1.30 

Caravelí 14.88 41346 3.19 55.63 4.96 6 8 0 87.12 0.62 

Carhuaz 34.68 45184 59.15 33.21 7.64 6 6 1 85.75 1.17 

Carlos Fermín 

Fitzcarrald 45.01 17717 35.02 33.79 9.01 7 7 1 78.15 1.03 

Casma 19.77 50989 21.32 47.55 4.98 6 7 0 80.91 1.29 

Castilla 25.06 33629 5.56 44.90 4.58 5 7 0 77.24 1.19 

Castrovirreyna 35.84 13982 4.81 41.35 4.49 5 6 0 54.55 0.96 

Caylloma 30.17 86771 7.10 46.24 4.89 8 13 1 82.66 1.81 

Celendín 63.15 79084 36.34 25.48 5.33 5 5 1 73.52 1.57 

Chachapoyas 39.76 55506 16.75 32.83 3.29 4 5 1 74.79 3.24 

Chanchamayo 21.31 151489 44.30 47.60 4.17 7 7 0 76.99 2.30 

Chepén 29.92 78418 78.10 42.82 5.35 6 7 0 79.33 1.98 

Chiclayo 14.66 799675 264.88 43.30 5.27 9 11 0 81.52 2.16 

Chincha 6.85 226113 74.40 48.00 3.87 5 6 0 84.94 2.23 

Chincheros 47.99 45247 47.69 39.94 6.35 7 8 1 73.16 1.58 

Chota 61.82 142984 43.35 29.36 4.69 5 5 1 70.31 1.90 



154 
 

Chucuito 48.61 89002 38.10 49.48 20.88 6 6 1 71.59 1.05 

Chumbivilcas 48.51 66410 15.46 37.83 12.16 10 12 1 67.64 1.66 

Chupaca 23.49 52988 46.75 47.18 5.28 7 10 1 72.48 0.93 

Churcampa 38.09 32538 36.63 37.59 3.70 6 8 1 57.81 1.62 

Concepción 27.93 55591 18.21 43.42 4.64 8 11 1 72.81 1.19 

Condesuyos 24.91 16118 2.53 45.68 3.55 5 7 1 83.08 1.00 

Condorcanqui 58.06 42470 3.10 40.02 12.43 5 5 0 67.53 6.35 

Contralmirant

e Villar 13.00 21057 9.58 43.88 5.17 4 4 0 74.51 0.97 

Contumazá 50.69 27693 15.38 29.51 5.88 5 5 1 69.79 0.79 

Coronel 

Portillo 16.33 384168 10.48 48.47 6.06 5 5 0 75.63 3.44 

Corongo 45.61 7532 8.20 37.27 5.61 7 8 1 70.84 0.62 

Cotabambas 43.91 50656 20.33 39.48 15.05 6 8 1 76.18 1.79 

Cusco 15.51 447588 743.71 37.76 6.22 10 12 1 78.67 2.81 

Cutervo 62.40 120723 46.33 30.87 3.65 5 5 1 77.23 1.60 

Daniel Alcides 

Carrión 52.65 43580 29.13 49.75 13.74 5 8 1 73.67 0.53 

Datem del 

Marañón 44.89 48482 1.41 38.20 7.94 5 5 0 82.18 5.21 

Dos de Mayo 39.77 33258 36.86 35.18 6.66 5 5 1 66.66 1.98 

El Collao 45.88 63878 15.41 43.66 10.23 5 5 1 80.82 1.23 

El Dorado 32.40 36752 32.08 32.01 2.15 5 5 0 81.04 1.72 

Espinar 34.66 57582 13.14 40.77 9.69 8 10 0 66.14 1.94 

Ferreñafe 31.86 97415 68.22 40.71 6.25 7 7 0 69.6 1.87 

General 

Sánchez Cerro 20.94 14865 5.11 37.10 8.30 7 7 1 83.94 0.26 

Gran Chimú 48.11 26892 24.34 31.51 2.61 5 5 0 72.06 1.44 

Grau 44.26 21242 12.16 39.17 18.67 7 9 1 62.85 0.49 

Huacaybamba 53.16 16551 13.25 37.36 15.04 5 5 1 80.89 1.79 

Hualgayoc 54.06 77944 132.71 25.80 5.43 5 5 1 80.14 1.41 



155 
 

Huallaga 19.48 27506 10.75 33.37 3.28 5 5 0 79.33 1.29 

Huamalíes 43.70 52039 24.38 38.22 4.96 6 9 1 76.96 1.61 

Huamanga 38.62 282194 92.06 38.32 5.92 9 10 1 67.77 2.50 

Huanca Sancos 46.20 8409 3.63 36.15 8.26 6 7 1 74.39 0.95 

Huancabamba 48.58 111501 29.85 31.51 5.51 4 4 0 60.13 2.05 

Huancané 42.81 57651 23.68 40.26 9.06 6 7 1 67.93 1.29 

Huancavelica 38.21 347639 38.30 36.62 7.45 6 12 1 59.72 0.72 

Huancayo 25.55 545615 143.50 39.22 4.97 8 11 1 71.64 2.23 

Huanta 54.00 89466 28.75 43.46 5.69 6 7 1 76.63 2.02 

Huánuco 35.82 293397 87.21 35.94 5.97 5 6 0 76.22 2.39 

Huaral 15.88 183898 53.29 50.29 4.38 5 5 0 82.42 1.71 

Huaraz 32.00 163936 67.97 36.13 6.35 7 7 1 74.99 2.44 

Huari 34.03 58714 22.72 38.60 7.97 8 8 1 77.05 1.55 

Huarmey 22.98 30560 7.99 50.63 4.37 7 9 0 81.07 1.06 

Huarochirí 18.97 58145 14.75 50.11 3.97 7 7 1 72.76 0.80 

Huaura 19.37 227685 45.58 46.15 4.35 5 5 0 78.71 1.93 

Huaylas 44.27 51334 24.76 32.33 5.42 7 7 1 84.43 1.99 

Huaytará 28.01 17247 3.57 42.10 8.82 6 8 1 59.2 1.07 

Ica 3.79 391519 46.97 44.10 5.20 5 5 0 83.15 2.10 

Ilo 5.36 74649 52.15 42.71 7.24 5 5 0 80.75 1.43 

Islay 10.90 52034 13.47 45.16 6.25 6 7 0 76.7 0.95 

Jaén 54.13 185432 38.18 37.79 4.28 5 5 0 77.14 2.63 

Jauja 26.40 83257 22.00 44.73 6.50 8 12 1 69.98 1.52 

Jorge Basadre 8.52 10773 2.99 42.30 4.49 5 5 0 74.29 0.27 

Julcán 53.69 28024 27.77 29.23 4.13 5 5 1 70.4 2.01 

Junín 36.42 23133 9.93 40.45 6.35 7 9 0 68.76 1.55 

La Convención 29.07 147148 6.02 45.77 6.14 7 7 0 78.08 2.50 

La Mar 51.54 70653 20.79 42.05 4.53 6 7 1 82.24 2.61 

La Unión 35.39 12827 3.00 35.45 3.18 5 6 1 93.11 1.33 

Lamas 27.17 81521 17.00 32.98 2.75 5 5 0 71.76 1.28 

Lambayeque 26.83 300170 31.43 41.34 5.74 7 9 0 74.73 2.35 



156 
 

Lampa 44.64 40856 9.06 42.70 9.91 8 9 1 77.6 0.93 

Lauricocha 32.10 18913 20.90 44.42 5.24 5 5 1 70.57 1.41 

Leoncio Prado 20.61 127793 27.44 42.65 4.62 6 6 0 71.81 2.65 

Lima  11.12 8574974 

3505.9

9 44.67 4.97 8 8 0 82.15 1.93 

Loreto 45.69 62437 1.08 39.74 7.15 4 4 0 71.34 3.16 

Lucanas 41.51 51328 4.76 40.90 6.26 9 10 1 63.4 1.05 

Luya 48.79 44436 16.05 32.44 2.33 4 4 1 75.06 0.82 

Manu 9.10 18549 0.90 53.30 5.21 5 5 0 76.32 0.98 

Marañón 38.54 26622 6.90 35.19 7.28 5 5 1 65.83 1.30 

Mariscal 

Cáceres 27.58 64626 3.50 40.53 3.38 5 5 0 72.53 2.35 

Mariscal 

Luzuriaga 51.33 20284 32.54 34.14 26.03 6 6 1 73.04 1.00 

Mariscal Nieto 18.53 85349 9.59 36.06 7.80 8 9 0 79.03 1.53 

Mariscal 

Ramón Castilla 45.39 49072 2.02 40.24 5.98 4 4 0 65.57 4.79 

Maynas 38.35 479866 7.47 47.24 5.94 4 4 0 72.5 2.78 

Melgar 42.67 67138 12.05 40.80 11.55 6 7 0 71.95 1.59 

Moho 48.02 19753 25.78 39.67 7.44 5 5 1 73.99 0.63 

Morropón 40.46 162027 41.28 39.34 5.89 6 6 0 73.23 1.98 

Moyobamba 22.27 122365 40.78 36.15 3.66 5 5 0 74.78 2.46 

Nazca 3.01 69157 11.33 47.52 5.47 4 4 0 84.25 1.92 

Ocros 29.17 7039 5.73 45.44 7.18 6 6 1 80.6 0.27 

Otuzco 50.75 77862 43.77 24.79 3.18 6 7 1 74.77 2.06 

Oxapampa 33.07 87470 5.40 40.00 3.20 6 6 0 67.3 2.79 

Oyón 26.59 17739 12.29 50.74 3.47 5 5 1 88.8 0.92 

Pacasmayo 27.32 102897 94.22 41.71 5.05 5 7 0 83.74 1.48 

Pachitea 46.05 49159 25.19 27.40 5.28 5 5 0 73.01 2.16 

Padre Abad 11.23 60107 7.07 44.67 4.20 5 5 0 82.4 2.19 

Paita 24.18 129892 77.03 45.16 7.42 6 6 0 81.01 2.26 



157 
 

Pallasca 53.15 23491 14.61 37.23 6.05 7 7 1 63.07 1.52 

Palpa 5.37 13232 9.91 48.21 6.02 3 3 0 85.81 0.63 

Parinacochas 40.96 27659 5.62 43.20 6.14 7 9 1 51.11 1.60 

Paruro 37.54 25567 15.51 36.49 6.51 5 7 1 59.06 0.73 

Pasco 36.81 123015 29.38 43.32 5.49 5 9 0 75.01 2.00 

Pataz 50.98 76103 21.30 34.88 4.65 5 5 1 76.98 2.08 

Páucar del 

Sara Sara 32.27 9609 5.29 44.08 5.93 8 9 1 68.52 0.56 

Paucartambo 45.91 42504 8.20 34.45 5.85 9 10 1 57.16 1.79 

Picota 28.55 40545 21.13 38.78 3.52 4 4 0 80.43 1.64 

Pisco 4.13 150744 34.69 47.91 6.21 5 5 0 75.81 2.02 

Piura 29.62 799321 128.59 40.31 6.21 7 8 0 79.31 2.18 

Pomabamba 48.81 24794 32.34 30.19 10.39 7 7 1 75.96 2.15 

Prov Callao  12.23 994494 

7144.7

9 49.41 6.19 3 4 0 83.17 1.85 

Puerto Inca 23.70 32538 3.05 39.59 3.35 7 7 0 69.85 2.62 

Puno 47.46 219494 21.95 36.98 10.40 7 9 1 65.98 1.77 

Purús 31.93 2860 0.26 41.66 8.73 4 4 0 66.43 1.92 

Putumayo a/ 45.04 7780 0.27 37.89 5.97 4 4 0 78.03 3.37 

Quispicanchi 37.87 87430 11.92 39.69 7.80 8 8 1 62.82 1.46 

Recuay 26.25 435807 8.39 40.29 11.41 6 7 1 65.18 0.04 

Requena 49.66 58511 1.51 43.94 6.71 4 4 0 77.36 3.22 

Rioja 29.20 122544 52.36 37.91 4.67 4 4 0 75.24 2.44 

Rodríguez de 

Mendoza 30.90 29998 13.35 30.99 1.82 4 4 0 70.56 0.76 

San Antonio de 

Putina 44.67 36113 22.26 51.18 13.55 6 7 1 54.92 0.81 

San Ignacio 53.94 130620 30.03 38.34 2.19 5 5 0 78.25 1.59 

San Marcos 59.19 48103 40.10 25.26 4.63 5 5 1 69.75 1.57 

San Martín 27.09 193095 34.10 39.98 4.47 4 5 0 73.49 2.91 

San Miguel 54.64 46043 21.82 31.19 4.80 5 5 1 75.53 0.80 



158 
 

San Pablo 67.74 21102 34.54 28.64 6.88 5 5 1 63.48 0.90 

San Román 32.26 307417 132.43 43.08 8.56 6 8 1 68.9 2.67 

Sánchez 

Carrión 56.92 144405 63.51 27.70 4.37 5 8 1 77.62 2.93 

Sandia 39.41 50742 6.15 50.53 8.16 5 5 1 73.15 1.12 

Santa 25.14 435807 110.73 44.65 6.27 6 7 0 79.26 2.17 

Santa Cruz 56.71 37164 31.86 36.62 3.23 5 5 1 69.16 1.12 

Santiago de 

Chuco 47.99 50896 23.38 32.45 5.61 5 6 1 77.75 2.04 

Satipo 35.98 203985 14.82 48.09 3.82 7 7 0 76.42 2.32 

Sechura 28.92 79177 12.30 39.31 7.99 6 6 0 68.95 2.12 

Sihuas 52.09 26971 20.87 35.99 7.03 6 6 1 75.49 1.62 

Sucre 49.11 9445 6.72 39.75 7.03 6 7 1 67.58 0.97 

Sullana 25.18 311454 58.97 44.52 6.14 6 6 0 78.92 2.54 

Tacna 15.69 306363 40.37 45.20 6.39 7 7 0 78.32 1.81 

Tahuamanu 4.37 11047 0.68 52.52 3.73 4 4 0 84.99 1.74 

Talara 14.70 144150 47.70 45.64 7.12 6 6 0 74.47 1.76 

Tambopata 6.31 111474 2.87 48.74 4.58 5 5 0 71.43 3.45 

Tarata 27.52 6094 2.73 42.38 7.18 4 4 1 82.84 0.51 

Tarma 30.49 89590 39.15 41.34 4.54 6 8 1 75 1.85 

Tayacaja 46.71 81403 32.10 40.71 4.89 5 8 1 67.81 1.90 

Tocache 24.27 69394 12.36 42.82 3.06 4 4 0 68.8 2.46 

Trujillo 18.86 970016 557.63 40.34 4.70 7 9 0 79.82 2.28 

Tumbes 11.89 154962 93.19 44.95 6.16 5 5 0 82.12 2.58 

Ucayali 43.22 54637 2.57 44.11 7.60 5 5 0 68.5 2.51 

Urubamba 24.48 60739 45.44 41.65 4.60 10 10 1 79.31 1.05 

Utcubamba 32.97 107237 30.95 37.35 3.80 4 4 0 74.45 1.93 

Víctor Fajardo 51.65 20109 10.48 36.28 6.44 6 7 1 82.55 0.80 

Vilcas Huamán 44.58 16861 19.95 36.78 12.12 6 7 1 68.52 0.93 

Virú 36.89 92324 38.10 42.90 2.82 5 6 0 76.34 1.65 

Yarowilca 43.98 19897 45.18 38.31 13.67 5 5 1 75.98 1.67 



159 
 

Yauli 16.07 40390 11.22 49.69 4.78 6 7 1 78.93 0.91 

Yauyos 23.50 20463 3.97 48.97 2.80 6 7 1 80.12 0.71 

Yungay 44.67 50841 43.49 30.19 4.70 6 6 1 74.44 1.33 

Yunguyo 45.44 36939 163.59 39.97 13.27 5 6 1 74.17 1.20 

Zarumilla 9.65 48844 74.08 49.62 4.84 3 3 0 73.66 1.28 



160 
 

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